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Pre-Pharm > A&P 24: Nutrition, Metabolism, & Body Temperature Regulation > Flashcards

A&P 24: Nutrition, Metabolism, & Body Temperature Regulation Flashcards

1
Q

ATP

A

the chemical energy form used by cells

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2
Q

Kilocalories (kcal) or C

A

the energy value of foods is measured in this unit

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3
Q

Nutrient

A

substance in food the body uses to promote normal growth, maintenance, and repair

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4
Q

Major nutrients

A

carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins; bulk of what we eat

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5
Q

Healthy Eating Pyramid

A

food pyramid put out in 1992 by Walter Willett; 6 major food groups, subdivides some further

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6
Q

MyPlate

A

food guide (2011) by USDA using a round dinner plate as a symbol; shows food categories in healthy proportions as sections on the plate

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7
Q

Essential nutrients

A

at least 45 & possibly 50 molecules cannot be made fast enough to meet the body’s needs, so our diet must provide them

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8
Q

Glucose

A

monosaccharide; THE carbohydrate molecule ultimately used as fuel by body cells to produce ATP

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9
Q

Complete proteins

A

proteins in eggs, milk, fish, and most meats; meet all the body’s amino acid requirements for tissue maintenance and growth

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10
Q

Nitrogen balance

A

homeostatic state in healthy adults in which the rate of protein synthesis equals the rate of protein breakdown and loss

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11
Q

Vitamins

A

potent organic compounds needed in minute amounts for growth and good health

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12
Q

Coenzymes

A

most vitamins function as ___, which act with an enzyme to accomplish a particular chemical task

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13
Q

Water-soluble vitamins

A

B-complex vitamins (except B12) and vitamin C; absorbed along with water from the GI tract

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14
Q

Fat-soluble vitamins

A

vitamins A, D, E, & K; bind to ingested lipids and are absorbed along with their digestion products; anything that interferes with fat absorption also interferes with the uptake of fat-soluble vitamins

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15
Q

Minerals

A

the body requires moderate amounts of 7 of these (calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, magnesium) and trace amounts of about a dozen others; make up about 4% of the body by weight, with calcium and phosphorus (as bone salts) accounting for 3/4 of this amount

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16
Q

Metabolism

A

collective term for a variety of biochemical reactions

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17
Q

Anabolism

A

general term for all reactions that build larger molecules or structures from smaller ones, such as bonding amino acids to build proteins

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18
Q

Catabolism

A

all processes that break down complex structures to simpler ones, like the hydrolysis of foods in the digestive tract

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19
Q

Cellular respiration

A

group of catabolic reactions in which food fuels, particularly glucose, are broken down in cells and some of the energy released is captured to form ATP

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20
Q

Phosphorylated

A

when an enzyme shifts its high-energy phosphate groups to other molecules; primes a molecule to change in a way that increases its activity, produces motion, or does work

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21
Q

Oxidation reactions

A

many of the reactions that take place within cells; gain of oxygen or the loss of a hydrogen

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22
Q

Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions

A

whenever one substance loses electrons (is oxidized), another substance gains them (is reduced)

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23
Q

Dehydrogenases

A

enzymes that catalyze redox reactions in which hydrogen atoms are removed

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24
Q

Oxidases

A

enzymes catalyzing the transfer of oxygen

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25
Q

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)

A

important coenzyme of the oxidative pathways, based on niacin

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26
Q

Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)

A

important coenzyme of the oxidative pathways, based on riboflavin

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27
Q

Substrate-level phosphorylation

A

occurs when high-energy phosphate groups are transferred directly from phosphorylated substrates (metabolic intermediates such as glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate) to ADP

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28
Q

Oxidative phosphorylation

A

complicated process; releases most of the energy that is eventually captured in ATP bonds during cellular respiration; carried out by electron transport proteins forming part of the inner mitochondrial membranes; chemiosmotic

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29
Q

Chemiosmotic processes

A

processes that couple the movement of substances across membranes to chemical reactions

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30
Q

Glycolysis

A

“sugar splitting”; occurs in the cytosol of cells; series of 10 chemical steps; converts glucose to 2 pyruvic acid molecules; all steps are reversible except the 1st

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31
Q

Pyruvic acid

A

final products of glycolysis = 2 molecules of this and 2 molecules of reduced NAD+ (NADH & H+)

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32
Q

Lactic acid

A

addition of 2 hydrogen atoms to pyruvic acid yields this

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33
Q

Aerobic pathways

A

when oxygen is again available, lactic acid is oxidized back to pyruvic acid and enters this pathway, and is completely oxidized to water and CO2

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34
Q

Krebs Cycle

A

stage of glucose oxidation after glycolysis; occurs in the mitochondrial matrix; fueled largely by pyruvic acid produced during glycolysis and by fatty acids resulting from fat breakdown

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35
Q

Transitional phase

A

converts pyruvic acid to acetyl coA; 3-step process: decarboxylation, oxidation, and formation of acetyl coA

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36
Q

Decarboxylation

A

one of pyruvic acid’s carbons is removed and released as carbon dioxide gas

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37
Q

Acetyl Coenzyme A (acetyl coA)

A

acetic acid is combined with coenzyme A to produce this reactive final product

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38
Q

Oxaloacetic acid

A

coenzyme A shuttles the 2-carbon acetic acid to an enzyme that condenses with this 4-carbon acid to produce the 6-carbon acid, citric acid

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39
Q

Citric acid

A

6-carbon acid produced from oxaloacetic acid

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40
Q

Citric Acid Cycle

A

because citric acid is the 1st substrate of the cycle, biochemists prefer to call the Krebs cycle this

41
Q

Keto acids

A

As the Krebs cycle moves through its 8 successive steps, the atoms of citric acid are rearranged to produce different intermediate molecules, most called __ ___

42
Q

Electron transport chain

A

aerobic process carrying out the final catabolic reactions that occur on the mitochondrial cristae

43
Q

Flavins

A

proteins containing flavin mononucleotide (FMN) derived from the vitamin riboflavin

44
Q

Cytochromes

A

brightly-colored iron-containing pigments

45
Q

Respiratory enzyme complexes

A

neighboring carriers are clustered together to form 4 of these that are alternately reduced and oxidized as they pick up electrons and pass them on to the next complex in the sequence

46
Q

Electrochemical proton (H+) gradient

A

a gradient that has potential energy and the capacity to do work

47
Q

ATP synthases

A

large enzyme-protein complexes (complex V); populate the inner mitochondrial membrane

48
Q

Glycogenesis

A

process of high ATP levels “turning off” glycolysis and glucose molecules combining in long chains to form glycogen

49
Q

Glycogenolysis

A

when blood glucose levels drop, glycogen lysis/splitting occurs

50
Q

Gluconeogenesis

A

process of forming new glucose from noncarbohydrate molecules; occurs in the liver; takes place when dietary sources and glucose reserves have been used up and blood glucose levels are beginning to drop

51
Q

Beta oxidation

A

initial phase of fatty acid oxidation; occurs in the mitochondria

52
Q

Lipogenesis

A

triglyceride synthesis; occurs when cellular ATP and glucose levels are high

53
Q

Lipolysis

A

breakdown of stored fats into glycerol and fatty acids; lipogenesis in reverse

54
Q

Ketogenesis

A

process in which the liver converts acetyl coA molecules to ketone bodies (ketones)

55
Q

Ketone bodies (ketones)

A

acetoacetic acid, B-hydroxybutyric acid, and acetone

56
Q

Ammonia

A

NH3; in the liver, the amine group of glutamic acid is removed as this compound

57
Q

Urea

A

main nitrogen-containing waste excreted in urine

58
Q

Urea cycle

A

cycle that rids the body of NH3 produced during oxidative deamination and bloodborne NH3 produced by intestinal bacteria

59
Q

Nutrient pools

A

stores of amino acids, carbs, and fats; body draws on these to meet its varying needs; interconvertible because the pathways are linked by key intermediates

60
Q

Amino acid pool

A

body’s total supply of free amino acids

61
Q

Carbohydrate & fat pools

A

fats & carbs are oxidized directly to produce cellular energy; excess fats & carbs can be stored as such

62
Q

Hypoglycemic hormone

A

insulin is this type of hormone; lowers blood glucose levels

63
Q

Glucose sparing

A

the increased use of noncarb fuel molecules (especially triglycerides) to conserve glucose

64
Q

Glucagon

A

insulin antagonist

65
Q

Hyperglycemic hormone

A

glucagon is this type of hormone; raises blood glucose levels

66
Q

Cholesterol

A

structural basis of bile salts, steroid hormones, and vitamin D; major component of plasma membranes

67
Q

Lipoproteins

A

small lipid-protein complexes; transports triglycerides and cholesterol to and from tissue cells (bound to them)

68
Q

Very Low Density Lipoproteins (VLDLs)

A

lowest density of lipids

69
Q

Low Density Lipoproteins (LDLs)

A

mid-density of lipids

70
Q

High-Density Lipoproteins (HDLs)

A

greatest proportion of proteins

71
Q

Trans fats

A

“healthy” oils that have been hardened by hydrogenation to make them more solid (margarines); have a worse effect on blood cholesterol levels than saturated fats do; spark a greater increase in LDLs and a greater reduction in HDLs, producing the unhealthiest ratio of total cholesterol to HDL

72
Q

Energy intake

A

energy liberated during food oxidation

73
Q

Energy output

A

energy immediately lost as heat (60%), used to do work (driven by ATP), and stored as fat or glycogen

74
Q

Body mass index (BMI)

A

index of a person’s weight relative to height

75
Q

Leptin

A

hormone that is a key component of the long-term controls of feeding behavior

76
Q

Metabolic rate

A

body’s rate of energy output; total heat produced by all the chemical reactions and mechanical work of the body

77
Q

Calorimeter

A

chamber with water circulating around it that absorbs heat liberated by the body; rise in water temp is directly related to the heat produced by the person’s body

78
Q

Respirometer

A

indirect method; measures oxygen consumption, which is directly proportional to heat production; for each L of oxygen used, the body produces about 4.8 kcal of heat

79
Q

Basal metabolic rate (BMR)

A

energy the body needs to perform only its most essential activities

80
Q

Thyroxine

A

hormone produced by the thyroid gland; probably the most important hormonal factor in determining BMR; the “metabolic” hormone

81
Q

Total Metabolic Rate (TMR)

A

rate of kilocalorie consumption needed to fuel all ongoing activities - involuntary and voluntary

82
Q

Food-induced thermogenesis

A

food ingestion induces a rapid increase in TMR; greatest when proteins and alcohol are ingested

83
Q

Core

A

organs within the skull and the thoracic and abdominal cavities; highest temp here

84
Q

Shell

A

skin; lowest temp here

85
Q

Radiation

A

loss of heat in the form of infrared waves (thermal energy)

86
Q

Conduction

A

transfers heat from a warmer object to a cooler one when the 2 are in direct contact with each other

87
Q

Convection

A

process that occurs because warm air expands and rises, and cool air, being denser, falls

88
Q

Evaporation

A

mechanism by which the body loses heat; water evaporating because its molecules are absorbing heat from the environment and become energetic enough to escape as a gas

89
Q

Heat of vaporization

A

heat absorbed by water during evaporation

90
Q

Insensible water loss

A

unnoticeable water loss occurring from lungs, oral mucosa, and skin

91
Q

Insensible heat loss

A

heat loss from lungs, oral mucosa, and skin; unnoticeable

92
Q

Thermoregulatory centers

A

heat-loss center (anterior) and heat-promoting center of the brain

93
Q

Peripheral thermoreceptors

A

the hypothalamus receives afferent input from these receptors in the shell (skin)

94
Q

Central thermoreceptors

A

the hypothalamus receives afferent input from these receptors sensitive to blood temp located in the body core, including the anterior portion of the hypothalamus

95
Q

Chemical (nonshivering) thermogenesis

A

cold stimulates the adrenal medulla to release epinephrine and norepinephrine in response to sympathetic nerve stimuli, elevating the metabolic rate and enhancing heat production; occurs in infants

96
Q

Hyperthermia

A

elevated body temperature

97
Q

Heat stroke

A

at a core temp of 105F, heat-control mechanisms are suspended, creating a vicious positive feedback cycle; skin becomes hot and dry and multiple organ damage becomes a distinct possibility, including brain damage

98
Q

Hypothermia

A

low body temp resulting from prolonged exposure to cold

Pre-Pharm (182 decks)

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