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Pre-Pharm > A&P 23: The Digestive System > Flashcards

A&P 23: The Digestive System Flashcards

1
Q

Digestive System

A

system that takes in food, breaks it down into nutrient molecules, absorbs these molecules into the bloodstream, then rids the body of the indigestible remains

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2
Q

Alimentary canal

A

GI tract; gut; continuous muscular tube that winds through the body from the mouth to the anus

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3
Q

Digests

A

breaks food down into smaller fragments

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4
Q

Absorbs

A

take in digested fragments through the lining of the GI tract into the blood

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5
Q

Accessory digestive organs

A

teeth, tongue, gallbladder, salivary glands, liver, pancreas

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6
Q

Ingestion

A

taking food into the digestive tract, usually via the mouth

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7
Q

Propulsion

A

moves food through the alimentary canal, includes swallowing (initiated voluntarily), peristalsis (involuntary; major means of this)

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8
Q

Mechanical breakdown

A

increases the surface area of ingested food, physically preparing it for digestion by enzymes; includes chewing, mixing food with saliva by the tongue, churning food in the stomach, and segmentation

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9
Q

Segmentation

A

rhythmic local constrictions of the small intestine

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10
Q

Digestion

A

involves a series of catabolic steps in which enzymes secreted into the lumen/cavity of the alimentary canal break down complex food molecules to their chemical building blocks

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11
Q

Absorption

A

passage of digested end products (plus vitamins, minerals, and water) from the lumen of the GI tract through the mucosal cells by active or passive transport into the blood or lymph

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12
Q

Defecation

A

eliminates indigestible substances from the body via the anus in the form of feces

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13
Q

Gut brain

A

consists of enteric nerves plexuses spread like chicken wire along the entire length of the GI tract and regulates digestive activity all along the tract

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14
Q

Peritoneum

A

most extensive of the serous membranes of the abdominopelvic cavity

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15
Q

Visceral peritoneum

A

covers the external surfaces of most digestive organs; continuous with the parietal peritoneum

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16
Q

Parietal peritoneum

A

lines the wall of the abdominopelvic cavity

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17
Q

Peritoneal cavity

A

area between the 2 peritoneums; a slitlike potential space containing a slippery fluid secreted by the serous membranes; lubricates the mobile digestive organs, allowing them to glide easily across one another and along the body wall as they carry out their activities

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18
Q

Mesentery

A

double layer of peritoneum that extends to the digestive organs from the body wall; provide routs for blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves to reach the digestive viscera, hold organs in place, and store fat; mostly dorsal

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19
Q

Retroperitoneal organs

A

pancreas, duodenum, and parts of the large intestine are considered this type of organ based on their location in the abdominopelvic cavity; lose mesentery during development

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20
Q

Intraperitoneal/peritoneal organs

A

digestive organs like the stomach that keep their mesentery and remain in the peritoneal cavity

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21
Q

Peritonitis

A

inflammation of the peritoneum

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22
Q

Splanchnic circulation

A

includes those arteries that branch off the abdominal aorta to serve the digestive organs and the hepatic portal circulation

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23
Q

Mucosa (mucous membrane)

A

innermost layer; moist epithelial membrane that lines the alimentary canal lumen from mouth to anus; major functions are to secrete mucus, digestive enzymes, and hormones, absorb the end products of digestion into the blood, and protect against infectious disease

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24
Q

Epithelium

A

except for that of the mouth, esophagus, and anus, where it is stratified squamous, this layer of the mucosa is simple columnar, rich in mucus-secreting cells

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25
Q

Lamina propia

A

layer underlying the epithelium; loose areolar connective tissue

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26
Q

MALT

A

mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue; help defend us against bacteria and other pathogens

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27
Q

Muscularis mucosae

A

external to the lamina propia is this scant layer of smooth muscle cells that produces local movements of the mucosa

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28
Q

Submucosa

A

layer just external to the mucosa; areolar connective tissue containing a rich supply of blood and lymphatic vessels, lymphoid follicles, and nerve fibers which supply the surrounding tissues of the GI tract wall

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29
Q

Muscularis externa (muscularis)

A

layer surrounding the submucosa; responsible for segmentation and peristalsis; has an inner circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer of smooth muscle cells

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30
Q

Serosa

A

outermost layer of the intraperitoneal organs; = visceral peritoneum; in most alimentary canal organs, formed of areolar connective tissue covered with mesothelium (single layer of squamous epithelial cells)

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31
Q

Adventitia

A

in the esophagus, the serosa is replaced by this ordinary fibrous connective tissue, which binds the esophagus to surrounding structures; retroperitoneal organs have both a serosa (on the side facing the peritoneal cavity) and this (on the side abutting the dorsal body wall)

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32
Q

Enteric neurons

A

neurons that staff the alimentary canal; communicate widely with one another to regulate digestive system activity

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33
Q

Submucosal nerve plexus

A

nerve network occupying the submucosa

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34
Q

Myenteric nerve plexus

A

nerve network lying between the circular and longitudinal muscle layers of the muscularis externa

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35
Q

Mouth

A

oral/buccal cavity; bounded anteriorly by the lips, laterally by the cheeks, superiorly by the palate, and inferiorly by the tongue

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36
Q

Oral orifice

A

anterior opening of the mouth

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37
Q

Lips (labia) & cheeks

A

help keep food between the teeth when we chew; composed of a core of skeletal muscle covered externally by skin; orbicularis oris, buccinators

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38
Q

Oral vestibule

A

recess bounded externally by the lips and cheeks and internally by the gums and teeth

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39
Q

Oral cavity proper

A

area that lies within the teeth and gums

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40
Q

Labial frenulum

A

median fold that joins the internal aspect of each lip to the gum

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41
Q

Palate

A

forms the roof of the mouth; has 2 distinct parts - hard and soft

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42
Q

Hard palate

A

underlain by the palatine bones and the palatine processes of the maxillae; forms a rigid surface against which the tongue forces food during chewing

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43
Q

Soft palate

A

mobile fold formed mostly of skeletal muscle that rises reflexively to close off the nasopharynx when we swallow

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44
Q

Palatoglossal arches

A

soft palate is anchored to the tongue by this

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45
Q

Palatopharyngeal arches

A

soft palate is anchored to the wall of the oropharynx by these more posterior folds

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46
Q

Fauces

A

the palatopharyngeal arches form the boundaries of this arched area of the oropharynx that contains the palatine tonsils

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47
Q

Uvula

A

fingerlike structure that projects downward from the free edge of the soft palate

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48
Q

Tongue

A

structure occupying the floor of the mouth; composed of interlacing bundles of skeletal muscle fibers; during chewing, it grips the food and constantly repositions it between the teeth

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49
Q

Bolus

A

compact mass formed by the tongue mixing food with saliva

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50
Q

Intrinsic muscles

A

muscles confined in the tongue; not attached to bone; their muscle fibers run in several different planes, allowing the tongue to change its shape (but not its position), becoming thicker, thinner, longer, or shorter as needed for speech and swallowing

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51
Q

Extrinsic muscles

A

muscles extending to the tongue from their points of origin on bones of the skull or soft palate; alter the tongue’s position - protrude it, retract it, and move it from side to side

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52
Q

Lingual frenulum

A

fold of mucosa that secures the tongue to the floor of the mouth and limits posterior movements

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53
Q

Filiform papillae

A

conical projections that roughen the tongue surface, helping us lick semisolid foods (like ice cream) and providing friction for manipulating foods; smallest and most numerous type; align in parallel rows on the tongue dorsum; contain keratin, which stiffen them and gives the tongue its whitish appearance

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54
Q

Fungiform papillae

A

mushroom-shaped projections scattered widely over the tongue surface; each has a vascular core that gives it a reddish hue

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55
Q

Vallate papillae

A

10-12 of these projections are located in a V-shaped row at the back of the tongue; resemble fungiform papillae but have an additional surrounding furrow

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56
Q

Foliate papillae

A

pleatlike structures located on the lateral aspects of the posterior tongue

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57
Q

Terminal sulcus

A

immediately posterior to the vallate papillae is this groove that distinguishes the portion of the tongue that lies in the oral cavity (its body) from its posterior portion in the oropharynx (its root)

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58
Q

Saliva

A

mouth secretion that cleanses the mouth, dissolves food chemicals so they can be tasted, moistens food and helps compact it into a bolus, and contains enzymes that begin the chemical breakdown of starchy foods

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59
Q

Major/extrinsic salivary glands

A

most saliva is produced by these glands that lie outside the oral cavity and empty their secretions into it

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60
Q

Minor/intrinsic salivary glands

A

buccal glands and others scattered throughout the oral cavity mucosa; slightly augment the output of saliva

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61
Q

Parotid gland

A

large, roughly triangular gland that lies anterior to the ear between the masseter muscle and the skin; its prominent duct parallels the zygomatic arch, pierces the buccinators muscle, and opens into the vestibule next to the 2nd upper molar

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62
Q

Submandibular gland

A

gland the size of a walnut; lies along the medial aspect of the mandibular body; duct runs beneath the mucosa of the oral cavity floor and opens at the base of the lingual frenulum

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63
Q

Sublingual gland

A

small, almond-shaped gland that lies anterior to the submandibular gland under the tongue and opens via 10-20 ducts into the floor of the mouth

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64
Q

Serous cells

A

cells that produce a watery secretion containing enzymes, ions, and a tiny bit of mucin

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65
Q

Mucous cells

A

cells that produce mucus

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66
Q

Mucus

A

stringy, viscous solution

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67
Q

Salivatory nuclei

A

when we ingest food, chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors in the mouth send signals to these nuclei in the brain stem (pons and medulla); as a result, parasympathetic nervous system activity increases

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68
Q

Teeth

A

lie in sockets (alveoli) in the gum-covered margins of the mandible and maxilla

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69
Q

Primary dentition

A

milk/baby teeth

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70
Q

Permanent dentition

A

deep-lying teeth; usually 32 in a full set

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71
Q

Incisors

A

chisel-shaped teeth adapted for cutting or nipping off pieces of food

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72
Q

Canines

A

conical or fanglike teeth; AKA cuspids or eyeteeth that tear and pierce

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73
Q

Premolars

A

bicuspids; grind/crush

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74
Q

Molars

A

broad crowns with rounded cusps for grinding/crushing; during chewing, upper and lower ones repeatedly lock together, an action that generates tremendous crushing forces

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75
Q

Dental formula

A

shorthand way of indicating the numbers and relative positions of the different types of teeth

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76
Q

Crown

A

enamel-covered, exposed part of the tooth

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77
Q

Gingiva

A

gum; surrounds the tooth like a tight collar

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78
Q

Enamel

A

brittle ceramic-like material thick as a dime; directly bears the force of chewing; hardest substance in the body; heavily mineralized with calcium salts

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79
Q

Root

A

portion of the tooth embedded in the jawbone; canines, incisors, and premolars have one of these; 1st 2 upper molars have 3; corresponding lower ones have 2

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80
Q

Neck

A

constricted tooth region; connects the crown and root

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81
Q

Cement

A

calcified connective tissue; covers the outer surface of the root and attaches the tooth to the thin periodontal ligament

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82
Q

Periodontal ligament

A

ligament that anchors the tooth in the bony socket of the jaw, forming a fibrous joint called a gomphosis

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83
Q

Dentin

A

protein-rich bonelike material, underlies the enamel cap and forms the bulk of the tooth; acts as a shock absorber during biting and chewing

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84
Q

Pulp cavity

A

dentin surrounds this area that contains a number of soft tissue structures (connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerve fibers)

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85
Q

Pulp

A

soft tissue structures within the pulp cavity

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86
Q

Root canal

A

where the pulp cavity extends into the root, it becomes this

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87
Q

Apical foramen

A

at the proximal end of each root canal is this hole that allows blood vessels, nerves, and other structures to enter the pulp cavity

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88
Q

Odontoblast

A

each tubule contains this elongated process; “tooth former”; cell type that secretes and maintains the dentin

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89
Q

Dental caries

A

cavities; result from bacterial action that gradually demineralizes enamel and underlying dentin

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90
Q

Dental plaque

A

decay begins when this film of sugar, bacteria, and other mouth debris) adheres to the teeth

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91
Q

Calculus

A

calcified dental plaque; tartar

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92
Q

Gingivitis

A

gum infection

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93
Q

Periodontal disease

A

periodontitis; when gingivitis worsens and bacteria cause neutrophils and immune system cells to carve deep pockets around the teeth; accounts for 80-90% of tooth loss in adults

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94
Q

Oropharynx, laryngopharynx

A

common passageways for food, fluid, and air

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95
Q

Esophagus

A

muscular tube about 25cm long and is collapsed when not involved in food propulsion

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96
Q

Esophageal hiatus

A

the esophagus pierces the diaphragm at this point to enter the abdomen

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97
Q

Cardial orifice

A

the esophagus joins the stomach at this point within the abdominal cavity

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98
Q

Gastroesophageal/cardiac sphincter

A

the cardial orifice is surrounded by this sphincter

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99
Q

Heartburn

A

the 1st symptom of GERD; burning, radiating substernal pain that occurs when stomach acid regurgitates into the esophagus

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100
Q

Hiatal hernia

A

heartburn is common in those with this condition, a structural abnormality (most often due to abnormal relaxation or weakening of the gastroesophageal sphincter) in which the superior part of the stomach protrudes slightly above the diaphragm

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101
Q

Mastication

A

chewing

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102
Q

Deglutition

A

swallowing

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103
Q

Buccal phase

A

phase of swallowing that occurs in the mouth and is voluntary

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104
Q

Pharyngeal-esophageal phase

A

phase of swallowing controlled by the swallowing center located in the brain stem (medulla and lower pons); involuntary

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105
Q

Stomach

A

temporary “storage tank” where chemical breakdown of proteins begin and food is converted to a creamy paste

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106
Q

Chyme

A

creamy paste that food is converted to at the beginning of chemical breakdown of proteins

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107
Q

Rugae

A

large, longitudinal folds that the stomach collapses into when empty

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108
Q

Cardial part (cardia)

A

part of the stomach near the heart; surrounds the cardial orifice through which food enters the stomach from the esophagus

109
Q

Fundus

A

stomach’s dome-shaped part, tucked beneath the diaphgram that bulges superiorly to the cardia

110
Q

Body

A

midportion of the stomach

111
Q

Pyloric part

A

funnel-shaped portion of the stomach; is continuous with the body

112
Q

Pyloric antrum

A

wider and more superior area of the pyloric part

113
Q

Pyloric canal

A

pyloric antrum narrows to form this part of the stomach

114
Q

Pylorus

A

pyloric canal terminates at this part

115
Q

Pyloric sphincter/valve

A

the pylorus is continuous with the duodenum through this part, which controls stomach emptying

116
Q

Greater curvature

A

convex lateral surface of the stomach

117
Q

Lesser curvature

A

concave medial surface of the stomach

118
Q

Lesser omentum

A

mesentery that helps tether the stomach to other digestive organs and the body wall; runs from the liver to the lesser curvature of the stomach, where it becomes continuous with the visceral peritoneum covering the stomach

119
Q

Greater omentum

A

drapes inferiorly from the greater curvature of the stomach to cover the coils of the small intestine; wraps the spleen and the transverse portion of the large intestine before blending with the mesocolon (dorsal mesentery that secures the large intestine to the parietal peritoneum of the posterior abdominal wall)

120
Q

Gastric pits

A

smooth lining of the stomach mucosa is dotted with millions of these

121
Q

Gastric glands

A

gastric glands lead into these tubular glands that produce the stomach secretions

122
Q

Gastric juice

A

stomach’s secretions

123
Q

Mucous neck cells

A

cells scattered in the neck and more basal regions of the glands produce a thin, soluble mucus quite different from that secreted by the mucous cells of the surface epithelium

124
Q

Parietal cells

A

cells found mainly in the more apical region of the glands scattered among the chief cells; simultaneously secrete HCl and intrinsic factor

125
Q

Pepsin

A

protein-digesting enzyme; HCl makes the stomach contents extremely acidic, a condition necessary for activation and optimal activity of this enzyme

126
Q

Chief cells

A

occur mainly in the basal regions of the gastric glands; cuboidal ones produce pepsinogen (inactive form of pepsin)

127
Q

Enteroendocrine cells

A

cells typically located deep in the gastric glands; release a variety of chemical messengers directly into the interstitial fluid of the lamina propia

128
Q

Histamine, serotonin

A

chemical messengers that act locally as paracrines

129
Q

Somatostatin

A

chemical messenger that act both as paracrines locally and as hormones that diffuse into the blood capillaries to influence several digestive system target organs

130
Q

Gastrin

A

hormone that plays essential roles in regulating stomach secretion and motility

131
Q

Mucosal barrier

A

thick coating of bicarbonate rich mucus builds up on the stomach wall, the epithelial cells of the mucosa are joined together by tight junctions that prevent gastric juice from leaking into the underlying tissue layers, & damaged epithelial mucosal cells are shed and quickly replaced by division of undifferentiated stem cells that reside where the gastric pits join the gastric glands – in these ways, the stomach protects itself

132
Q

Peptic ulcers

A

persistent damage to the underlying tissues can promote these

133
Q

Gastric ulcers

A

erosions of the stomach wall that cause gnawing epigastric pain

134
Q

Rennin

A

an enzyme that acts on milk protein (casein), converting it to a curdy substance that looks like soured milk

135
Q

Intrinsic factor

A

required for intestinal absorption of vitamin B12, needed to produce mature erythrocytes

136
Q

Cephalic (reflex) phase

A

phase of gastric secretion occurring before food enters the stomach; a few minutes long, this phase is triggered by the aroma, taste, sight, or thought of food, and it gets the stomach ready for its upcoming digestive chore

137
Q

Gastric phase

A

once food reaches the stomach, local neural and hormonal mechanisms initiate this phase of gastric secretion; lasts 3-4 hours and provides about 2/3 of the gastric juice released

138
Q

G cells

A

gastrin-secreting enteroendocrine cells in the stomach antrum

139
Q

Alkaline tide

A

as H+ is pumped from the cell & HCO3- (bicarbonate) accumulates within the cell, HCO3- is ejected through the basolateral cell membrane into the capillary blood; as a result, the blood draining from the stomach is more alkaline than the blood serving it

140
Q

Intestinal phase

A

phase of gastric secretion with 2 components - stimulatory and inhibitory

141
Q

Intestinal (enteric) gastrin

A

hormone that encourages the gastric glands to continue their secretory activity

142
Q

Enterogastric reflex

A

inhibitory trio of reflexes that (1) inhibit the vagal nuclei in the medulla, (2) inhibit local reflexes, & (3) activate sympathetic fibers that cause the pyloric sphincter to tighten and prevent further food entry into the small intestine

143
Q

Enterogastrones

A

intestinal hormones, including secretin, cholecystokinin (CCK), & vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP); all inhibit gastric secretion when the stomach is very active

144
Q

Receptive relaxation

A

response of smooth muscle in the stomach fundus and body which occurs both in anticipation of and in response to food moving through the esophagus and into the stomach

145
Q

Gastric accommodation

A

example of smooth muscle plasticity; intrinsic ability of visceral smooth muscle to exhibit the stress-relaxation response (can stretch without greatly increasing its tension)

146
Q

Basic electrical rhythm (BER)

A

cyclic slow waves of the stomach

147
Q

Vomiting (emesis)

A

unpleasant experience that empties the stomach by a different route

148
Q

Emetic center

A

part of the medulla that initiates a number of motor responses preceding vomiting

149
Q

Small intestine

A

body’s major digestive organ; digestion is completed here and virtually all absorption occurs here

150
Q

Ileocecal valve (sphincter)

A

where the small intestine joins the large intestine

151
Q

Duodenum

A

mostly retroperitoneal part of the small intestine; relatively immovable; curves around the head of the pancreas; about 25cm long; shortest division of the small intestine

152
Q

Hepatopancreatic ampulla

A

bulblike point where the bile duct and the main pancreatic duct unite in the wall of the duodenum

153
Q

Major duodenal papilla

A

the hepatopancreatic ampulla opens into the duodenum via this volcano-shaped structure

154
Q

Hepatopancreatic sphincter

A

smooth muscle valve that controls the entry of bile and pancreatic juice into the duodenum

155
Q

Jejunum

A

2.5m long part of the small intestine; central part

156
Q

Ileum

A

3.6m long part of the small intestine; distal part; joins the large intestine at the ileocecal valve

157
Q

Circular folds

A

deep, permanent folds of the mucosa and submucosa of the small intestine; 1cm tall; force chime to spiral through the lumen, slowing its movement and allowing time for full nutrient absorption

158
Q

Villi

A

fingerlike projections of the mucosa, over 1mm high; give it a velvety texture; large and leaflike in the duodenum, gradually narrow/shorten along the length of the small intestine

159
Q

Lacteal

A

in the core of each villus is a dense capillary bed and this wide lymphatic capillary where digested foodstuffs are absorbed through the epithelial cells into both it & the capillary blood

160
Q

Microvilli

A

exceptionally long, densely packed structures of the absorptive cells of the mucosa; gives the mucosal surface a fuzzy appearance

161
Q

Brush border

A

fuzzy appearance of the mucosal surface of the small intestine

162
Q

Brush border enzymes

A

the plasma membranes of the microvilli bear enzymes referred to as this, which complete the digestion of carbohydrates and proteins in the small intestine

163
Q

Intestinal crypts

A

between the villi, the mucosa is studded with pits leading into these tubular glands in the small intestine

164
Q

Peyer’s Patches

A

aggregated lymphoid nodules in the small intestine; primarily located in the lamina propria but occasionally protrude into the submucosa; increase in abundance toward the distal end of the small intestine

165
Q

Duodenal glands

A

elaborate, mucus-secreting glands in the submucosa of the duodenum; produce an alkaline (bicarbonate-rich) mucus that helps neutralize acidic chime moving in from the stomach

166
Q

Liver

A

largest gland in the body; occupies most of the hypochondriac and epigastric regions, extending farther to the right of the body midline than to the left; lies almost entirely within the rib cage; has 4 primary lobes

167
Q

Falciform ligament

A

mesentery; separates the right and left lobes anteriorly and suspends the liver from the diaphragm and anterior abdominal wall

168
Q

Round ligament/ligamentum teres

A

runs along the inferior edge of the falciform ligament; fibrous remnant of the fetal umbilical vein

169
Q

Hepatic artery & hepatic portal vein

A

vessels entering the liver at the porta hepatis & the common hepatic duct

170
Q

Porta hepatis

A

gateway to the liver

171
Q

Common hepatic duct

A

bile leaves the liver through several bile ducts that ultimately fuse to form this large duct, which travels downward toward the duodenum

172
Q

Cystic duct

A

common hepatic duct fuses with this duct to form the bile duct

173
Q

Bile duct

A

fusion of common hepatic duct and cystic duct

174
Q

Liver lobules

A

structural & functional units of the liver

175
Q

Hepatocytes

A

liver cells; organized like bricks in a garden wall

176
Q

Central vein

A

hepatocyte plates radiate outward from this vessel, running in the longitudinal axis of the lobule

177
Q

Portal triad

A

at each of the 6 corners of a liver lobule is this portal tract region, AKA ___; contains 3 basic structures - branch of the hepatic artery (supplying oxygen-rich arterial blood to the liver), a branch of the hepatic portal vein (carrying venous blood laden with nutrients from the digestive viscera), & a bile duct

178
Q

Liver sinusoids

A

between the hepatocyte plates are enlarged, heavily fenestrated ___ _____

179
Q

Stellate macrophages

A

hepatic macrophages; form part of the sinusoid walls; star-shaped; remove debris (e.g. bacteria) and worn-out blood cells from the blood as it flows past

180
Q

Bile canaliculi

A

tiny canals which bile flows through; run between adjacent hepatocytes toward the bile duct branches in the portal triads

181
Q

Hepatitis

A

inflammation of the liver; most often due to viral infection; 6 viruses cause it, A-F

182
Q

Cirrhosis

A

progressive chronic inflammation of the liver that typically results from severe chronic hepatitis or chronic alcoholism; damaged hepatocytes regenerate but the liver’s connective/scar tissue regenerates faster; liver becomes fatty and fibrous, depressing its activity

183
Q

Portal hypertension

A

condition that results when scar tissue in the liver obstructs blood flow throughout the hepatic portal system

184
Q

Bile

A

yellow-green, alkaline solution containing bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol, triglycerides, phospholipids (lecithin and others), and a variety of electrolytes; only bile salts & phospholipids aid the digestive process

185
Q

Bile salts

A

primarily cholic and chenodeoxycholic acids; cholesterol derivatives; role = to emulsify fats; also facilitate fat and cholesterol absorption; help solubilize cholesterol, both that contained in bile and that entering the small intestine in food

186
Q

Bilirubin

A

chief bile pigment; waste product of the heme of hemoglobin formed during the breakdown of worn-out erythrocytes

187
Q

Gallstones

A

biliary calculi; painful crystals caused by too much cholesterol or too few bile salts allowing the cholesterol to crystalize; obstructs the flow of bile from the gallbladder; pain radiates to the right thoracic region when the gallbladder or its duct contracts (from the sharp crystals)

188
Q

Pancreas

A

soft, tadpole-shaped gland that extends across the abdomen from its tail (abutting the spleen) to its head, which is encircled by the C-shaped duodenum; most of this organ is retroperitoneal; deep to the greater curvature of the stomach

189
Q

Pancreatic juice

A

exocrine produce produced by the pancreas; drains from the pancreas into the duodenum via the centrally located main pancreatic duct

190
Q

Main pancreatic duct

A

duct from which pancreatic juice drains

191
Q

Acini

A

clusters of secretory acinar cells surrounding ducts; full of RER and exhibit deeply staining zymogen granules

192
Q

Zymogen granules

A

deeply staining particles containing inactive digestive enzymes (proenzymes) they manufacture

193
Q

Enteropeptidase

A

intestinal brush border protease within the duodenum; formerly called enterokinase; activates trypsinogen to trypsin

194
Q

Trypsin

A

activates trypsinogen and 2 other pancreatic proteases (procarboxypeptidase & chymotrypsinogen) to their active forms

195
Q

Carboxypeptidase

A

active form of procarboxypeptidase

196
Q

Chymotrypsin

A

active form of chymotrpysinogen

197
Q

Amylase, lipases, nucleases

A

other pancreatic enzymes; secreted in active form; require that ions or bile be present in the intestinal lumen for optimal activity

198
Q

Migrating motor complex (MMC)

A

each successive peristaltic wave of the small intestine begins a bit more distally; this pattern of peristaltic activity is called this

199
Q

Gastroileal reflex

A

long reflex triggered by stomach activity; increases the force of segmentation in the ileum & relaxes the sphincter

200
Q

Large intestine

A

organ framing the small intestine on 3 sides & extending from the ileocecal valve to the anus

201
Q

Feces

A

waste eliminated from the body as a semisolid

202
Q

Teniae Coli

A

“ribbons of the colon” 3 bands of smooth muscle = longitudinal muscle layer of the large intestine

203
Q

Haustra

A

teniae coli puckers the wall of the colon into these pocketlike sacs

204
Q

Epiploic appendages

A

small fat-filled pouches of visceral peritoneum that hang from the surface of the large intestine; significance unknown

205
Q

Cecum

A

saclike “blind pouch” which lies below the ileocecal valve in the right iliac fossa; 1st part of the large intestine

206
Q

Appendix

A

attached to the posteromedial surface of the cecum is this blind, wormlike structure; contains masses of lymphoid tissue; part of MALT; important role in body immunity; storehouse of bacteria, recolonizes the gut when needed

207
Q

Appendicitis

A

acute inflammation of the appendix; results from a blockage (often by feces) that traps infectious bacteria in its lumen

208
Q

Colon

A

another name for the large intestine; several distinct regions

209
Q

Ascending colon

A

part of the large intestine that travels up the right side of the abdominal cavity to the level of the right kidney

210
Q

Right colic (hepatic) flexure

A

right-angle turn by the ascending colon

211
Q

Transverse colon

A

part of the large intestine that travels across the abdominal cavity

212
Q

Left colic (splenic) flexure

A

directly anterior to the spleen, the large intestine bends acute and descends down the left side of the posterior abdominal wall

213
Q

Descending colon

A

part of the large intestine that travels down the left side of the posterior abdominal wall

214
Q

Sigmoid colon

A

part of the large intestine that enters the pelvis and becomes S-shaped

215
Q

Mesocolons

A

mesentery sheets that anchors the transverse and sigmoid colon to the posterior abdominal wall

216
Q

Rectum

A

in the pelvis, at the level of the 3rd sacral vertebra, the sigmoid colon joins this structure, which runs posteroinferiorly just in front of the sacrum

217
Q

Rectal exam

A

digital (finger) examination of the pelvic organs through the anterior rectal wall

218
Q

Rectal valves

A

3 transverse folds that stop feces from being passed along with gas (flatus)

219
Q

Anal canal

A

last segment of the large intestine; lies in the perineum, entirely external to the abdominopelvic cavity

220
Q

Anus

A

where the rectum opens to the body exterior

221
Q

Internal anal sphincter

A

involuntary sphincter composed of smooth muscle (part of the muscularis)

222
Q

External anal sphincter

A

voluntary sphincter composed of skeletal muscle

223
Q

Anal columns

A

mucosa of the anal canal hangs in these long ridges/folds

224
Q

Anal sinuses

A

recesses between the anal columns; exude mucus when compressed by feces, which aids in emptying the anal canal

225
Q

Bacterial flora

A

live bacteria entering the cecum from the small intestine (most are dead) + bacteria that enter the GI tract via the anus; 10 million discrete types; functions = colonize the colon, synthesize B complex vitamins and some of the vitamin K the liver needs to produce several clotting proteins, metabolize some host-derived molecules (mucin, heparin, and hyaluronic acid), & ferment some of the indigestible carbohydrates (cellulose, xylan, & others), releasing irritating acids and a mixture of gases (dimethyl sulfide, H2, N2, CH4, & CO2)

226
Q

Haustral contractions

A

movements seen most in the colon; slow, segmenting movements lasting about 1 minute that occur every 30 minutes or so; occur mainly in the ascending/transverse colon, reflect local controls of smooth muscle within the walls of the individual hasutra

227
Q

Mass movements

A

mass peristalsis; long, slow-moving, powerful contractile waves that move over large areas of the colon 3-4 times daily and force the contents toward the rectum; typically occur during or just after eating

228
Q

Gastrocolic reflex

A

propulsive reflex that forces contents of the colon toward the rectum

229
Q

Diverticula

A

small herniations of the mucosa through the colon walls

230
Q

Diverticulosis

A

condition where the diverticula herniate through the mucosa of the colon walls; most commonly occurs in the sigmoid colon; affects over half of people over age 70

231
Q

Diverticulitis

A

in 20% of cases, diverticulosis progresses to this condition in which the diverticula become inflamed and may rupture, leaking into the peritoneal cavity, which can be life threatening; foods and products that make feces bulkier help prevent this condition

232
Q

Defecation reflex

A

when mass movements force feces into the rectum, stretching of the rectal wall initiates this reflex

233
Q

Diarrhea

A

watery stools; result from any condition that rushes food through the large intestine before that organ has had sufficient time to absorb the remaining water; causes include irritation of the colon by bacteria, prolonged physical jostling of the digestive viscera (occurs in marathon runners)

234
Q

Constipation

A

too much water is absorbed when food remains in the colon for extended periods and the stool becomes hard and difficult to pass; may result from lack of fiber in the diet, improper bowel habits (failing to the heed the “call”), lack of exercise, emotional stress, or laxative abuse

235
Q

Digestion

A

catabolic process that breaks down large food molecules to monomers (chemical building blocks) small enough to be absorbed by the GI tract lining

236
Q

Hydrolysis

A

enzymatic breakdown of any food molecule; involves adding a water molecule to each molecular bond to be broken/lysed

237
Q

Monosaccharides

A

simple sugars; monomers of carbohydrates; glucose, fructose, and galactose are common in our diet

238
Q

Salivary amylase

A

substance present in saliva; splits starch into oligosaccharides (smaller fragments of 2-8 linked glucose molecules); works best in a slightly acid to neutral environment (6.75-7) maintained in the mouth by the buffering effects of bicarbonate and phosphate ions in saliva

239
Q

Pancreatic amylase

A

starchy foods and other digestible carbs that escape being broken down by salivary amylase are acted on by this enzyme in the small intestine

240
Q

Dextrinase & glucoamylase

A

most important brush border enzymes; act on oligosaccharides composed of more than 3 simple sugars

241
Q

Maltase, sucrase, lactase

A

simple sugars; hydrolyze maltose, sucrose, and lactose into their constituent monosaccharides

242
Q

Amino acid

A

healthy individuals digest much protein all the way to these monomers

243
Q

Pepsin

A

protein digestion begins in the stomach when pepsinogen secreted by the chief cells is activated to this group of protein-digested enzymes; activated by high pH in the duodenum

244
Q

Rennin

A

enzyme that coagulates milk protein; not produced in adults

245
Q

Trypsin & chmyotrypsin

A

proteolytic enzymes secreted by the pancreas that cleave the proteins into smaller peptides, which in turn become the grist for other enzymes

246
Q

Carboxypeptidase

A

pancreatic and brush border enzyme that splits off 1 amino acid at a time from the end of the polypeptide chain that bears the carboxyl group

247
Q

Aminopeptidase & dipeptidase

A

brush border enzymes that liberate final amino acid products; 1 works from the amine end of a protein, one amino acid at a time

248
Q

Lipases

A

pancreas is the major source of these fat-digesting enzymes, which makes the small intestine the primary site of lipid digestion

249
Q

Fatty acids and monoglycerides

A

glycerol with 1 fatty acid chain attached

250
Q

Pancreatic nucleases

A

nuclei in pancreatic juices hydrolyze the nucleic acids to their nucleotide monomers

251
Q

Nucleotides

A

monomers of nucleic acids

252
Q

Nucleosidases & phosphates

A

intestinal brush border enzymes that break nucleotides apart to release their free bases, pentose sugars, and phosphate ions

253
Q

Micelles

A

collections of fatty acid elements clustered together with bile salts in such a way that the polar (hydrophilic) ends of the molecule face the water and the nonpolar portions form the core

254
Q

Chylomicrons

A

water-soluble lipoprotein drops

255
Q

Lipoprotein lipase

A

enzyme associated with capillary endothelium

256
Q

Ferritin

A

ionic iron, essential for hemoglobin production, is actively transported into the mucosal cells, where it binds to this protein; phenomenon = mucosal iron barrier

257
Q

Transferrin

A

in the blood, iron binds to this plasma protein that transports it into circulation

258
Q

Vitamin D

A

active form of this vitamin promotes active calcium absorption

259
Q

Malabsorption

A

impaired nutrient absorption

260
Q

Primitive gut

A

developing alimentary canal

261
Q

Stomodeum

A

depressed area of the surface ectoderm

262
Q

Oral membrane

A

anteriomost endoderm and stomodeum fuse to become this, which eventually becomes the opening of the mouth

263
Q

Proctodeum

A

ectodermal depression

264
Q

Cloacal membrane

A

“sewer”; fuses with the proctodeum to form the anus

265
Q

Cleft palate

A

one of the most common congenital defects that interferes with feeding; palatine bones or palatine process of the maxillae (or both) fail to fuse; serious because causes child to be unable to suck properly

266
Q

Cleft lip

A

one of the most common congenital defects; interferes with feeding because lip fails to form correctly

267
Q

Gastroenteritis

A

inflammation of the GI tract

268
Q

Cholecystitis

A

inflammation of the gallbladder

Pre-Pharm (182 decks)

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