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NPLEX I > Anderson Intro 1 > Flashcards

Anderson Intro 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Which sugars make maltose? What is the bond?

A

Glucose + glucose. alpha1-4

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2
Q

Which sugars make lactose? What is the bond?

A

Galactose + glucose. beta1-4

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3
Q

What sugars make sucrose? What is the bond?

A

Glucose + fructose. alpha1-beta2

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4
Q

What is the only beta linkage human (babies) can break down?

A

Lactose - lactase specific

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5
Q

What sugars make up glycogen? What is the bond

A

Multiple glucoses. Chains are alpha1-4, and branching are alpha1-6.

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6
Q

Define glycogen.

A

Storage form of glucose in animals. Highly branched (more than amylopectin)

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7
Q

Define inulin

A

Tuber starch. Hydrolyzed fructose. Easily soluble in warm water.

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8
Q

Define cellulose

A

Plant starch/insoluble fiber. beta1-4.

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9
Q

Monosaccharide absorption

A

Glucose and Galactose - Na+ cotransporter

Fructose - facilitated diffusion

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10
Q

How much ATP does one sugar molecule produce?

A

36-38 ATP

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11
Q

B2 name and role in TCA

A

Riboflavin, FAD

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12
Q

B1 name and role in TCA

A

Thiamine, active form - thiamin diphosphate (alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase)

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13
Q

B3 name and role in TCA

A

Niacin, NAD

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14
Q

B5 name and role in TCA

A

Pantothenic acid, co-enzyme A

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15
Q

Where in the Kreb cycle is most of the ATP created?

A

Oxidative phosphorylation.

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16
Q

In oxidative phosphorylation, which membrane (inner/outer) is most active?

A

Inner!

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17
Q

What is the rate limiting enzyme in glycolysis?

A

Phosphofructokinase (requires 1 ATP)

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18
Q

Induction (first step) enzymes for glycolysis and where they are found?

A

Hexokinase - all tissues, muscles

Glucokinase - liver/pancreas

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19
Q

Aerobic glycolysis ends in…

A

Pyruvate (Net 2 ATP)

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20
Q

Anaerobic glycolysis ends in…

A

Lactate (Net 2 ATP, no more produced)

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21
Q

What stimulates/inhibits glycolysis?

A

Insulin - stimulates

ATP - inhibits

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22
Q

What inhibits PFK?

A

ATP and citrate

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23
Q

What converts phospheno-pyruvate (PEP) to pyruvate?

A

Pyruvate kinase (creates 2 ATP)

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24
Q

What converts pyruvate to acetyl-coA?

A

Pyruvate dehydrogenase (final step to TCA)

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25
Q

Elevated lactate dehydrogenase lab values indicate what?

A

Anaerobic glycolysis making too much lactic acid.

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26
Q

What four enzymes are required for gluconeogenesis?

A

Mitochondria: Pyruvate carboxylase (pyruvate to oxaloacetate)
malate shuttle
Cytosol: Pyruvate carboxykinase (oxaloacetate to PEP)
F-1,6-Diphosphatase (F-1,6-P to F-6-P)
Glucose-6-phosphatase (G-6-P to Glucose)

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27
Q

What stimulates/inhibits gluconeogenesis?

A

Epinephrine, Glucagon, Cortisol - stimulates

Insulin - inhibits

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28
Q

What is the rate limiting step of gluconeogenesis?

A

Fructose-1,6-diphosphates - inhibited by F6P

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29
Q

What is the use of liver glycogen? What is the use of muscle glycogen?

A

Liver: Blood glucose maintenance, usually between meals. (12-18hr fast)

Muscle: Vigorous exercise, starvation.

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30
Q

What is the important enzyme that takes glucose-6-phosphate into the glycogenesis reaction?

A

Phosphoglucomutase (G6P to G-1,6-Bis-phosphate)

Requires Mg

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31
Q

What is the major controller of glycogen concentration?

A

Phosphorylase-a

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32
Q

How does cAMP (affected by insulin or glucagon) affect glycogenolysis or glycogenesis?

A

Increased cAMP - activates phosphorylase leading to glycogenolysis. Reduces glycogenesis.

Decreased cAMP - activates glycogen synthase leading to glycogenesis. Reduces glycogenolysis.

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33
Q

What is the primary function of the pentose pathway?

A

NO ATP CREATED, Generates NADPH (required for FA synthesis) and ribose (nucleic acid synthesis)

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34
Q

Where does the pentose pathway occur?

A

Cytosol

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35
Q

What are the oxidative and non-oxidative phases of phases of hexose-monophosphate shunt (pentose pathway)?

A

Oxidative: NON-REVERSIBLE
G6P to Ribulose-5-phosphate
Requires - G6P Dehydrogenase and 6-Phosphogluconate Dehydrogenase

Non-oxidative: REVERSIBLE
R5P back to G6P
Requires: transketolase and transaldolase

36
Q

One of the most common causes of hemolytic anemia?

A

G6P dehydrogenase deficiency

37
Q

Glutathione redox cycle require what product of the pentose pathway to be converted to the reduced form?

A

NADPH

38
Q

Why is glutathione important to peroxide detoxification?

A

Required for glutathione peroxidase. Otherwise H2O2 explodes RBC - G6PD deficiency.

39
Q

What substance builds up with diabetic retinopathy (product of fructose)?

A

D-sorbitol

40
Q

What product is galactose “laundered” through to form usable glucose?

A

Glycogen (glycogen synthase from UDP galactose)

41
Q

How is a mammary gland a “modified” sweat gland? What’s the modification?

A

Can produce lactose (via lactose synthase using UDP galactose and glucose)

42
Q

Name omega-6, omega-3 fatty, omega-9 acids.

A

Omega9- oleic
Omega6- linoleic acid
Omega3- linolenic acid

43
Q

What lipids are in the phospholipid/triglyceride family?

A

Phosphatidylcholine, triacylglycerol, cardiolipin

Important for cell membrane integrity.

44
Q

Acyl vs. Acetyl

A

Acyl - large fat for oxidation or storage

Acetyl - 2 carbon molecule for TCA

45
Q

How does insulin influence triglycerides?

A

Causes livers to increase TG in blood.

46
Q

ApoE receptors receive which lipid?

A

Chylomicrons

47
Q

Where does the LDL come from?

A

The liver!

48
Q

ApoB receptors receive which lipid?

A

LDL

49
Q

What is the difference between IDL, VLDL, and LDL?

A

How much interaction they have had with HDL. HDLs are very hormone-like. Trades triglycerides with cholesterol ester. Takes away the oxidizable TGs for CE in LDL. Oxidized LDL damages blood vessels.

50
Q

A-1 receptors receive which lipid?

A

HDL, turn on cholesterol removal.

51
Q

What does ACAT do? CE Hydrolase?

A

ACAT - Takes free cholesterol and keeps it safe as CE (Cholesterol ester) less oxidizable and also lessl usable.

CE hydrolase - takes CE to free cholesterol, makes it more usable.

52
Q

What is the primary fat-soluble antioxidants?

A

Tocopherols = Vitamin E

53
Q

How is Vitamin E absorbed and carried?

A

LDLs

54
Q

How many carbons do eicosanoids have?

A

20 C - linoleic acid, arachidonic acid, alpha-linolenic acid.

55
Q

What are the end cytokine products of linolenic acid, arachadonic acid, and linoleic acid?

A

Linolenic: prostaglandin, thromboxane, and leukotriene 3 (anti-inflammatory)

Arachadonic: “” 2 (pro-inflammatory)

Linoleic: “” 1 (anti-inflammatory)

56
Q

What fat inhibits conversion of linoleic and linolenic acid to GLA and EPA respectively?

A

Trans-fats ( inhibits delta-6 desaturase)

57
Q

What inhibits/stimulates delta-6 desaturase?

A

Inhibits: stress, hormones, age, cancer
Stimulates: B-6, Mg, Zn

58
Q

What inhibits/stimulates delta-5 desaturase?

A

Inhibits: EPA, DHA, glucagon
Stimulates: Insulin

59
Q

What enzyme frees membrane phospholipids to arachadonic acid? What stimulates/inhibits?

A

Phospholipase A2

Stimulates: angiotensin 2, bradykinin, epi, thrombin
Inhibits: corticosteroides

60
Q

What converts arachadonic acids to leukotrienes, prostaglandins, thromboxanes?

A

Lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase

Inhibited by NSAIDs

61
Q

Define micelle.

A

Bile encrusted fats in the GI lumen.

62
Q

What enzyme converts TG to FFA and glycerol?

A

Lipoprotein lipase

63
Q

What are the two produces to acetoacetyl CoA?

A

HMG- CoA (HMG-CoA Synthase) and Acetyl-CoA (Thiolase)

64
Q

HMG -CoA can go to Ketones or Cholesterol. What enzyme takes it to which product?

A

HMG CoA lyase - Ketone

HMG CoA reductase - Cholesterol (mevalonate)

65
Q

What class of drugs blocks HMG CoA reductase?

A

Statins

66
Q

What is the final enzyme for the conversion of demusterol to cholesterol?

A

delta24 reductase

67
Q

What organ systems can use ketones? To which organ are ketones toxic?

A

Muscle and brain.

Liver.

68
Q

What inhibits/stimulates conversion of TG to FFA?

A

Stimulates: epinephrine and cortisol
Inhibits: insulin

69
Q

What molecule helps shuttle the fat into the mitochondria?

A

Carnitine (amino acid-like)

70
Q

Where is carnitine palmitoyl transferase I? II?

A

I - outer membrane

II - inner membrane

71
Q

What does carnitine acyl transferase?

A

Recycles carnitine and helps CPT II get a hold of the fat to carry it into the mitochondria.

72
Q

Protein bonds: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary

A

Primary: covalent between AA, strongest bond
Secondary: first folding, disulfide bonds, weaker bonds
Tertiary: secondary folding, s-s bonds
Quaternary: multiple polypeptides, e.g. hemoglobin.

73
Q

Define protein vs. peptide.

A 
Protein = >10 AA long
Peptide = 2-10 AA long
74
Q

Essential amino acids…

A

Histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, valine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, arginine

PVT TIM HALL

75
Q

Non-essential amino acids…

A

Alanine, aspartate, glutamine, glycine, cysteine, proline, asparagine, tyrosine

76
Q

What are the three amino acids that make up glutathione? Which one is the middle and rate limiting AA in glutathione synthesis?

A

Cysteine, glutamine, glycine

Cysteine.

77
Q

Products of tyrosine?

A

Dopamine, norepinephrine, epi, T3, T4, melanin

78
Q

Products of tryptophan?

A

5-HTP (Serotonin), melatonin, niacin

79
Q

Product of glutamate?

A

GABA

80
Q

Products of glycine?

A

Porphyrin (heme), creatine (glycine + arginine)

81
Q

Product of histidine?

A

Histamine

82
Q

What is a zymogen?

A

Inactive form of enzyme.

83
Q

How are all proteins absorbed in the GI?

A

Na+ dependent transporter

84
Q 
What do the following enzymes do? 
Hydrolase
Aldolase
Dehydrogenase
Hydratase
Isomerase
Esterase
A

Hydrolase - adds H2O to break bonds
Aldolase - cleaves C-C bonds to form aldehydes
Dehydrogenase - removes H from substrate
Hydratase - adds H2O to C-C bonds w/o breaking bond. Can also remove H2O to create double bond.
Isomerase - converts between isomers
Esterase - hydrolyzes ester linkages to form an alcohol and acid

85
Q

What are the phase I and phase II liver detox mechanisms?

A

Phase I - CYP450 for fat-soluble compounds (steroid hormones endogenous and exogenous)
Phase II - Conjugation for water-soluble compounds (add amino acid anchor)

Adding glycine - hippurates
Glutathione - mercapturates
Glucuronic acid - glucoronides

86
Q

What are two damaging bi-products of phase I detoxification?

A

Peroxide and superoxide

NPLEX I (12 decks)

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