research: basic concepts and ethics

Question 1

positivism

Answer 1

A philosophical paradigm that proposes an objective truth exists and can only be understood if directly observable (i.e., “truth” must be directly measurable). Positivism has been closely tied to quantitative research

Question 2

post-positivism

Answer 2

A philosophical paradigm that proposes truth can only be approximated because of inherent errors present when measuring reality. The concept of measurement error in terms of validity and reliability is emphasized.

Question 3

constructivism

Answer 3

A philosophical paradigm that contends there are multiple realities or perspectives for any given phenomenon. Truth differs for individuals and is an internal manifestation, as opposed to positivism and post-positivism, which propose that truth is external to the individual.

Question 4

critical/ideological paradigm

Answer 4

A philosophical paradigm that centers on researchers taking a proactive role and confronting the social structure and conditions facing oppressed or underprivileged groups.

Question 5

Nazi medical war crimes

Answer 5

Involved exploiting and deceiving prisoners during World War II in Nazi Germany to understand how the human body would react to various conditions.

Question 6

Nuremberg code

Answer 6

A set of ethical principles for research using humans; resulted from the Nuremberg trials following World War II. Guarantees research participants’ choice to be involved in a research study (i.e., voluntary consent) and the right to terminate their participation at any time.

Question 7

Belmont report

Answer 7

A report prompted by the ethical issues arising from the Tuskegee syphilis study. Created by the former U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare to outline ethical principles and guidelines for research involving human participants.

Question 8

Milgram obedience study

Answer 8

An infamous, unethical research study in which Stanley Milgram sought to investigate blind obedience through a series of shocks (15–450 volts). “Learners” (who were a part of Milgram’s team) pretended to be shocked by “teachers” (participants) when responding with incorrect answers. Although most participants showed signs of internal struggle, 65% “shocked” learners at the maximum level. There was no debriefing of the study.

Question 9

Tuskegee syphilis study

Answer 9

An infamous, unethical research study in which physicians studying the long-term effects of syphilis (i.e., data from autopsies) told 400 African American males with syphilis they were receiving treatment for “bad blood.” Participants were never informed of their actual diagnosis and, even when penicillin was discovered as a treatment in the 1940s, the participants never received the drug

Question 10

Jewish chronic disease hospital study

Answer 10

An infamous, unethical research study in which both healthy and unhealthy patients were injected with live cancer cells so that researchers could better understand the impact of cancer on the basis of health status. Participants never provided informed consent and were not told they were being injected with cancer cells.

Question 11

Willowbrook study

Answer 11

An unethical research study in which researchers used a school for children with mental disabilities, Willowbrook, to study the effects of hepatitis in a controlled setting. Parents who wanted to enroll their children in the school signed an informed consent to allow their children to be injected with the hepatitis virus. Parents were never informed of their right to decline the injections for their children, nor were they told the long-term effects of hepatitis.

Question 12

Common Rule

Answer 12

A part of “Title 45: Public Health, Part 46: Protection of Human Subjects” of the Code of Federal Regulations. It outlines policies that guide researchers who use human subjects. It requires these studies to be approved by an institutional review board (IRB).

Question 13

institutional review board (IRB)

Answer 13

Any institution receiving federal funding must sponsor an IRB in order to approve proposals to conduct research with human subjects. An IRB consists of five members and typically operates under the same general guidelines

Question 14

Variable

Answer 14

A construct that has at least two levels or categories and therefore, can vary and be measured. The three primary types of variables are (a) independent variable (IV; a construct manipulated or controlled in some way by the researcher); (b) dependent variable (DV; the outcome variable influenced by an independent variable); and (c) extraneous variables (a variable that could affect the dependent variable and mask the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable). Confounding variables, a type of extraneous variable, occur when two or more variables both affect the dependent variable simultaneously, but the effects cannot be distinguished.

Question 15

Research Question

Answer 15

A statement that identifies what a research study hopes to examine. There are three major types: (a) relational research questions examine the relationship between variables; (b) descriptive research questions examine and describe what already exists; and (c) causal research questions attempt to determine the cause-and-effect relationship among variables.

Question 16

Research Hypotheses

Answer 16

A testable, concise statement involving the expected relationship between two or more variables. Research hypotheses can be nondirectional (e.g., “There is a significant relationship between amount of sleep and career satisfaction”) or directional (i.e., “There is a significant positive relationship between amount of sleep and career satisfaction”)

Question 17

Hypothesis Testing

Answer 17

Involves the decision-making process of determining if the null hypothesis is to be retained or rejected based on significance level and the critical value.

Question 18

null hypothesis

Answer 18

A statement that “There is no relationship” between an independent variable (IV) and a dependent variable (DV). It is notated H.

Question 19

alternative hypothesis

Answer 19

A hypothesis developed in order to be eliminated; it addresses the question “What else could be causing the results?” Alternative hypotheses usually involve outlining potential extraneous variables. It is notated H1.

Question 20

significance level

Answer 20

A threshold used for rejecting the null hypothesis in hypothesis testing, with values associated with a typically .001, .01, or .05).

Question 21

statistical significance

Answer 21

The cutoff point (i.e., critical value); any value that exceeds the cutoff point will be noted as statistically significant.

Question 22

p value

Answer 22

The likelihood of obtaining a result at least as extreme as the one observed assuming the null hypothesis is true.

Question 23

type I error

Answer 23

A type of error (alpha, a) associated with hypothesis testing that occurs when a decision is made to reject a null hypothesis when that null hypothesis is in fact true

Question 24

type II error

Answer 24

A type of error (beta, B) associated with hypothesis testing that occurs when a decision is made to retain the null hypothesis that should have been rejected because the null hypothesis was indeed false.

Question 25

power

Answer 25

In hypothesis testing, the likelihood of detecting a significant relationship between variables when one is really there.

Question 26

probability sampling

Answer 26

A type of quantitative sampling that involves sampling a known population using randomization. Probability sampling methods include (a) simple random sampling (every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected); (b) systematic sampling (every nth element is chosen); (c) stratified random sampling (a population is divided into subgroups and the professional counselor draws randomly from the subgroups); and (d) cluster sampling (the professional counselor identifies existing subgroups and not individual participants). Cluster sampling can involve multiple stages, such as a two-stage random sample (e.g., randomly select 60 schools and then 20 classes from those schools), a three-stage random sample (e.g., randomly selecting 200 school districts, then 20 schools from each district, and then 10 classes per school), and so forth

Question 27

nonprobability sampling

Answer 27

A quantitative sampling method that typically involves accessible, convenient samples and does not use randomization. Nonprobability sampling methods include convenience (the selection of an easily accessible population that most likely does not fully represent the population of interest); purposeful (the selection of a sample from a population based on who will be most informative about a topic of interest; participants are selected because they represent needed characteristics); and quota (drawing the needed number of participants with the needed characteristic (e.g., gender and race) from the convenience sample).

Question 28

random selection

Answer 28

Involves selecting participants from a population so that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

Question 29

random assignment

Answer 29

Involves assigning participants to different groups, such as a treatment or control group, to ensure that groups (errors) are equal and that any systematic group differences are due to chance.

Question 30

treatment group

Answer 30

The group of participants receiving the active treatment under study. It is also known as the experimental group

Question 31

control group

Answer 31

Used in experimental designs, this group comprises those participants in a study who share very similar attributes with the experimental group but do not receive treatment. Three types of control groups are commonly used: (a) wait list control group (individuals who are awaiting treatment, but not receiving any treatment at all); (b) placebo control group (individuals who receive some “treatment” that will not affect the dependent variable [e.g., sugar pill]); and (c) treatment as usual (TAU) control group (individuals receive whatever treatment they would ordinarily receive if they sought treatment but do not receive the special treatment under study).

Question 32

blind study

Answer 32

A study in which the participants are not aware of the condition (treatment or control group) to which they have been assigned.

Question 33

double blind study

Answer 33

A study in which neither the researcher nor the participant knows if the participant belongs to the experimental group or the control group, which helps to combat subjective bias by both the researcher and the participant.

Question 34

placebo effect

Answer 34

The positive effects of a treatment felt by participants even though no treatment is actually administered.

Question 35

Internal Validity

Answer 35

The degree to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the effects of the independent variable. Threats to internal validity include history, selection, statistical regression, testing, instrumentation, attrition, maturation, diffusion of treatment, experimenter effects, and subject effects.