development: learning theories

Question 1

Classical Conditioning

Answer 1

A learning process, first described by Ivan Pavlov, that occurs when a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus and, thereby, comes to elicit the unconditioned response associated with the unconditioned stimulus

Question 2

Ivan Pavlov

Answer 2

A Russian physiologist best known for first describing the phenomenon of classical conditioning through his studies on the salivation of dogs.

Question 3

extinction

Answer 3

The termination of a behavior by withholding reinforcement. In classical conditioning, extinction describes the eventual elimination of the conditioned response (CR) through repeated presentations of the conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (US).

Question 4

spontaneous recovery

Answer 4

In classical conditioning, this occurs when the previously weakened CS/CR connection is re-established very quickly causing the CR to re-emerge.

Question 5

stimulus generalization

Answer 5

In classical conditioning, the tendency for the CS/CR connection to be generalized to other stimuli similar to the original CS. For example, Little Albert was originally conditioned to fear a white rat but later generalized his response, leading him to also fear a white rabbit

Question 6

stimulus discrimination

Answer 6

In classical conditioning, the absence of the CR when a new stimulus that resembles the original CS is presented. In Little Albert’s case, stimulus discrimination would have occurred if he had reacted to a white rat (the original CS) but not a white rabbit.

Question 7

John B. Watson

Answer 7

Often referred to as the “father of American behaviorism.” Avidly campaigned for his idea that psychology should only deal with what can be observed and accurately measured. Watson is also well known for his controversial “Little Albert” experiment, which attempted to condition a phobia into an 11-month-old infant

Question 8

Joseph Wolpe

Answer 8

: Applied classical conditioning procedures to psychotherapy.

Question 9

reciprocal inhibition

Answer 9

A principle developed by Joseph Wolpe that assumes a person cannot engage in two mutually exclusive events simultaneously. Reciprocal inhibition is used in systematic desensitization, a technique used to treat phobias.

Question 10

systematic desensitization

Answer 10

A technique developed by Joseph Wolpe to treat phobias. It is based on the principle of reciprocal inhibition (i.e., a person cannot engage in two mutually exclusive events simultaneously) and involves client exposure to increasingly fearful objects (i.e., fear hierarchy) while maintaining a simultaneous state of relaxation. Thus, the fear is systematically deconditioned using reciprocal inhibition—that is, the client cannot be fearful and relaxed at the same time.

Question 11

counterconditioning

Answer 11

reciprocal inhibition

Question 12

aversive counterconditioning

Answer 12

reciprocal inhibition using an aversive incompatible response

Question 13

flooding

Answer 13

intensive form of exposure therapy

Question 14

Operant Conditioning

Answer 14

Theory of learning developed by B. F. Skinner. Maintains that all learning is contingent on the consequence of a particular behavior, and so uses consequences to modify the occurrence and type of behavior.

Question 15

Edward L. Thorndike

Answer 15

Introduced the law of effect, which proposes that if a response to stimuli results in a satisfying state/reward, the response is likely to be repeated in a similar situation and that, on the other hand, a response that results in an unpleasant consequence is unlikely to be repeated again.

Question 16

law of effect

Answer 16

Introduced by Edward L. Thorndike. Proposes that if a response to stimuli results in a satisfying state/reward, the response is likely to be repeated in a similar situation. On the other hand, a response that results in an unpleasant consequence is unlikely to be repeated

Question 17

B. F. Skinner

Answer 17

Developed the theory of operant conditioning.

Question 18

positive reinforcement

Answer 18

Occurs when the addition of a stimulus (e.g., reward) immediately following the response increases the likelihood that the behavior will reoccur.

Question 19

negative reinforcement

Answer 19

Occurs when the removal of a stimulus (e.g., loud noise) increases the likelihood that a behavior will reoccur

Question 20

punishment

Answer 20

The addition or removal of a stimulus that decreases the frequency of a given behavior

Question 21

reinforcers

Answer 21

In operant conditioning, stimuli that increase the likelihood a behavior will reoccur. Primary reinforcers satisfy a primary need (e.g., food and rest). Secondary reinforcers are any things that become associated with a primary need, such as money, which can be traded for food or comfort, or tokens, which can be exchanged for rewards

Question 22

primary reinforcers

Answer 22

Reinforcers that satisfy a primary need (such as food).

Question 23

secondary reinforcers

Answer 23

Reinforcers associated with a primary need (e.g., a token that can be traded in for food).

Question 24

reinforcement schedules

Answer 24

Dictate when and how often a behavior is reinforced. A continuous schedule of reinforcement administers a reinforcer immediately following each desired response. An intermittent reinforcement schedule does not administer a reinforcer every time a desired response occurs. The four types of intermittent schedules are (a) fixed ratio (reinforcer is administered every time a participant makes a certain number of responses), (b) variable ratio (reinforcements are presented periodically, every nth time), (c) fixed interval (individuals are reinforced after a fixed period of time), and (d) variable interval (the time interval of the reinforcement administration is varied).

Question 25

Social Learning Theory

Answer 25

Developed by Albert Bandura; based on the notion that learning occurs through observation, imitation, and modeling. Specifically, if an individual observes a behavior that leads to a desired outcome, the individual will be more likely to observe, imitate, and model the behavior.

Question 26

Albert Bandura

Answer 26

Developed social learning theory, which is based on the principle that people learn through observation, imitation, and modeling.

Question 27

observational (vicarious) learning

Answer 27

Learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining, and, in some situations, replicating novel behavior executed by others.

Question 28

modeling

Answer 28

Demonstration of a particular skill or behavior so that it may be learned and passed on.

Question 29

three components of observational (vicarious) learning

Answer 29

attention
retention
reproduction

Question 30

self-efficacy

Answer 30

Term developed by Albert Bandura that refers to an individual’s confidence in his or her ability to perform a given behavior or accomplish a given task.

Question 31

John Dollard and Neal Miller

Answer 31

Proposed that anxiety and psychological disturbances were learned from experiences. They are best known for identifying and describing three types of conflicts: (a) approach-approach conflicts occur when two positive choices are presented, but only one can be chosen, even though they may be equally appealing; (b) approach-avoidance conflicts occur when a person wants something appealing but fears being punished or being negatively evaluated for obtaining it; and (c) avoidance-avoidance conflicts occur when the person loses no matter which choice is made.

Question 32

Jean Piaget

Answer 32

The Swiss philosopher and scientist known for his theory of cognitive development. Piaget’s theory, which describes cognitive development of children, proposed that cognitive growth is dependent on a child’s ability to order and classify new information (i.e., organization). He proposed that children move through four developmental stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

Question 33

organization

Answer 33

According to Piaget, one’s ability to order and classify new information

Question 34

adaptation

Answer 34

According to Piaget, individuals must adapt their existing cognitive structures when new information is encountered. The adaptation of cognitive structures occurs through two complementary processes known as assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation and accommodation assist an individual in reducing the disequilibrium that results from encountering new information, which challenges previously existing ways of thinking.

Question 35

assimilation

Answer 35

The process by which an individual perceives and interprets new information through previously existing cognitive structures.

Question 36

accommodation

Answer 36

creating new cognitive structures to process new information; opposed to assimilation

Question 37

schema

Answer 37

A mental structure that processes or integrates experiences, information, or perceptions. Schemas are often adapted as new information is encountered.

Question 38

equilibration

Answer 38

A process, ordinarily accomplished through a combination of assimilation and accommodation, through which motivated people attempt to make sense of new information (adapting thoughts to reduce the conflict or disequilibrium).

Question 39

piaget’s four stages of cognitive development:

Answer 39

• sensorimotor,
• preoperational,
• concrete operational,
• formal operational

Question 40

Lev Vygotsky

Answer 40

A Russian psychologist known for his constructionist, cognitive developmental theory, which held that cognitive processes occur in a social context and are facilitated by language development. Vygotsky coined the term zone of proximal development, which refers to tasks children encounter that are too difficult for them to master alone. He maintained that children need the guidance and assistance of adults to learn these tasks (i.e., scaffolding).

Question 41

three types of memory:

Answer 41

sensory, short-term, long-term

Question 42

sensory memory (trace memory)

Answer 42

The ability to retain environmental stimuli detected by sensory receptors (e.g., background music, the color of shoes other people are wearing). While the sensory memory has a large capacity for unprocessed information, it is only able to retain this information for a few seconds.

Question 43

short-term memory

Answer 43

A temporary information storage system that allows information to be retained for seconds to minutes. The limit of short-term recall is disputable, but it is most likely 7 bits of information. The transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory occurs more efficiently if an individual encodes and rehearses this information.

Question 44

long-term memory

Answer 44

Enables an individual to store a large amount of information for relatively permanent amounts of time, depending upon how efficiently the person learned the information.

Question 45

encode

Answer 45

The process of compacting information in a meaningful way so that it can be stored and retrieved efficiently during transfer from short-term to long-term memory.

Question 46

three theories of forgetting:

Answer 46

• poor retrieval,
• decay of memory,
• interference

Question 47

retrieval theory

Answer 47

Asserts that information is held permanently in longterm storage and that forgetting is the result of insufficient cues that fail to retrieve the information. The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is commonly associated with this theory of forgetting.

Question 48

decay of memory theory

Answer 48

Suggests that traces of information held in memory simply decay over time and that the memory eventually disappears forever

Question 49

interference theory

Answer 49

Proposes that learned information is inhibited by other learning experiences.

Question 50

retroactive inhibition

Answer 50

A loss of memory that occurs when new information interferes with information previously learned

Question 51

proactive inhibition

Answer 51

A loss of memory that occurs when old information interferes with newly learned information.

Question 52

four ways of remembering:

Answer 52

• chunking,
• method of loci, -acronyms,
• eidetic memory

Question 53

Yerkes-Dodson law

Answer 53

States that memory and performance are optimized when an individual attains a moderate state of arousal. Low and high states of arousal are thought to suppress performance.

Question 54

cognitive dissonance

Answer 54

Conflict or discomfort experienced when a discrepancy is noticed between what an individual already knows and new information being received. The theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that individuals are motivated to reduce dissonance either by changing their existing beliefs and attitudes to accommodate the new information or by justifying their beliefs and attitudes by rejecting the new information.

Question 55

confirmatory bias

Answer 55

A person’s likelihood of screening for information that confirms previously held beliefs (i.e., hearing what one wants to hear).

Question 56

attribution theory

Answer 56

Concerned with how people perceive their own as well as others’ behaviors. It also examines the cause an individual attributes to events and how these cognitive perceptions shape one’s behavior.

Question 57

imaginary audience

Answer 57

A belief maintained by adolescents that everyone is watching and critically judging them.

Question 58

personal fable

Answer 58

An egocentric belief by which adolescents believe they are personally unique and exempt from the consequences of risky behaviors. Examples include the thought “Nobody understands me” or the belief that one cannot contract STDs from having unprotected sex.

Question 59

crystallized intelligence

Answer 59

A type of intelligence proposed by Cattell (1971) that is gained through learning and is greatly affected by life experiences and culture.

Question 60

two components of creativity:

Answer 60

divergent and convergent thinking