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A Level Chemistry Year 1 > Basic Concepts and Hydrocarbons > Flashcards

Basic Concepts and Hydrocarbons Flashcards

1
Q

What is a functional group?

A

A group of atoms responsible for the characteristic reactions of a molecule

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2
Q

What does nomenclature mean?

A

Naming organic compounds

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3
Q

How many bonds to carbon form?

A

4

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4
Q

What is the functional groups of alcohols?

A

-OH

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5
Q

What is the functional group of carboxylic acids?

A

-COOH

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6
Q

What is the functional group of alkenes?

A

-C=C-

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7
Q

How many bonds do oxygen form?

A

2

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8
Q

What is the general formula?

A

An algebraic formula that can describe any member of a family of compounds

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9
Q

What is the general formula of alcohols?

A

CnH2n+1OH

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10
Q

What is a homologous series?

A

A family of compounds that have the same functional group and general formula

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11
Q

What do consecutive members of a homologous series differ by?

A

-CH2-

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12
Q

What is the general formula for alkanes?

A

CnH2n+2

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13
Q

What is the molecular formula?

A

Gives the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule

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14
Q

What is the empirical formula?

A

Gives the simplest whole number ratio between atoms of each element in a compound

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15
Q

How do you find the empirical formula if given the molecular formula?

A

Divide the molecular formula by the smallest number of atoms for a given element in a molecule

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16
Q

What is the functional group of an ester?

A

-COO

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17
Q

What is the structural formula?

A

Shows the atoms carbon by carbon, with the attached hydrogen and functional groups

E.G. Ethane = CH3CH3

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18
Q

What is a displayed formula?

A

It shows how all the atoms are arranged, and all the bonds between them

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19
Q

What does the skeletal formula show?

A

Just the carbons, joined in a zig-zag to show where each bond ends

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20
Q

What is an aromatic compound?

A

An organic compound that contains a benzene ring

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21
Q

What are the 2 ways of drawing a benzene ring?

A

⏣ or ⌬

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22
Q

What is an aliphatic compound?

A

Compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen joined together in straight chains, branched chains or non-aromatic rings

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23
Q

What is an alicyclic compound?

A

An organic compound that contains carbon and hydrogen joined together in a non-aromatic ring (doesn’t contain a benzene ring)

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24
Q

What is an alkyl group?

A

A hydrocarbon fragment with general formula CnH2n+1

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25
Q

What is a saturated compound?

A

A compound that only contains single carbon-carbon bonds (C-C)

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26
Q

What is an unsaturated compound?

A

A compound that can contain carbon-carbon double bonds, triple bonds or aromatic groups

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27
Q

In structural isomers, the …. is the same, but the …. is different?

A

In structural isomers the molecular formula is the same, but the structural formula is different

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28
Q

What are the 3 types of structural isomers?

A

Chain isomers
Positional isomers
Functional group isomers

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29
Q

What is a chain isomer?

A

Where the carbon skeleton is arranged differently- as a straight chain or branched in different ways

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30
Q

What is the difference in chemical properties for chain isomers?

A

The chemical properties are the same

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31
Q

What is the difference in physical properties for chain isomers?

A

Physical properties (e.g. boiling point) are different because the shape of the molecule has changed

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32
Q

What are positional isomers?

A

A molecule with the same molecular formula as another molecule, but with the functional group in a different position

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33
Q

Describe the chemical and physical property differences for positional isomers

A

They have different chemical and physical properties

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34
Q

What are functional group isomers?

A

A molecule with the same molecular formula as another molecule, but with atoms arranged in different functional groups

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35
Q

Describe the chemical and physical property differences for functional group isomers

A

The physical and chemical properties are very different

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36
Q

What is the general formula for alkanes?

A

CnH2n+2

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37
Q

What is a hydrocarbon?

A

A molecule that contains only Hydrogen and Carbon

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38
Q

Are alkanes saturated or unsaturated?

A

Saturated, as they contain only carbon-carbon single bonds

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39
Q

What is a cycloalkane?

A

A type of alkane with one or more non-aromatic carbon rings

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40
Q

What is the agreed system for naming organic compounds?

A

IUPAC

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41
Q

What does IUPAC stand for?

A

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

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42
Q

When was the IUPAC set up?

A

1919

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43
Q

Why was the IUPAC set up?

A

The aim was to create internationally accepted standards in Chemistry so that research could be shared more easily around the world

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44
Q

How many carbons does Meth- have?

A

1

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45
Q

How many carbons does Eth- have?

A

2

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46
Q

How many carbons does Prop- have?

A

3

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47
Q

How many carbons does But- have?

A

4

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48
Q

How many carbons does Pent- have?

A

5

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49
Q

How many carbons does Hex- have?

A

6

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50
Q

How many carbons does Hept- have?

A

7

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51
Q

How many carbons does Oct- have?

A

8

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52
Q

How many carbons does Non- have?

A

9

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53
Q

How many carbons does Dec- have?

A

10

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54
Q

When naming organic compounds, what has the suffix -‘ol’?

A

Alcohols e.g. Methanol

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55
Q

When naming organic compounds, what has the prefix ‘Chloro-‘

A

Chloroalkanes e.g. Chloromethane

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56
Q

What are the 2 parts to the name of a straight-chain alkane?

A
  • The stem has the name given for however many carbons there are e.g. 5 carbons = Pent-
  • All have the ending ‘-ane’
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57
Q

What is the side chain prefix for 1 carbon atom?

A

Methyl

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58
Q

What is the side chain prefix for 2 carbon atoms?

A

Ethyl

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59
Q

What is the side chain prefix for 3 carbon atoms?

A

Propyl

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60
Q

What is the side chain prefix for 4 carbon atoms?

A

Butyl

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61
Q

What is the side chain prefix for 5 carbon atoms?

A

Pentyl

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62
Q

What is the side chain prefix for 6 carbon atoms?

A

Hexyl

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63
Q

How do you name branched alkanes?

A

Count the longest chain of carbon atoms and then work out what side chains there are

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64
Q

In an alkane, what is the shape and bond angle around each carbon atom?

A

Tetrahedral, 109.5°

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65
Q

Why is the shape around a carbon atom tetrahedral?

A

Because there are 4 pairs of bonding electrons, so they all repel each other equally

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66
Q

What is a sigma (σ) bond

A

A bond formed when 2 orbitals overlap directly between the bonded atoms

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67
Q

How do covalent bonds form?

A

They can form between 2 atoms if they’re arranged so that the outer atomic orbitals overlap

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68
Q

What determines the strength of a sigma bond?

A

How well the orbitals overlap

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69
Q

Why do σ bonds have a high bond enthalpy?

A

Because The high electron density between the nuclei means there is a high electrostatic force of attraction between the nuclei and the shared pair of electrons

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70
Q

What is the strongest type of covalent bond?

A

σ-bonds

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71
Q

Are alkanes reactive or unreactive?

A

Unreactive

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72
Q

What are the 2 reasons why alkanes are unreactive?

A
  • The C-C and C-H σ-bonds have a large bond enthalpy, so take a lot of energy to break
  • The bonds are non-polar, so they won’t attract any positively or negatively charged particles to react with them
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73
Q

Describe the trend in boiling points with increasing sizes alkanes

A

The boiling point increases

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74
Q

Why does the boiling point of alkanes increase as they become longer?

A

Between the molecules are London forces. When the carbon chain gets longer the London forces increase so it takes more energy to overcome them

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75
Q

Why does the strength of the London forces increase with a longer carbon chain?

A

Because the alkane has a larger molecular surface area so there is more surface contact between the molecules and there are more electrons to interact with

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76
Q

Describe why the boiling point increases for the first 6 alkanes

A

As the alkane gets longer, the number of electrons in the molecules and the surface contact between molecules increases. So the London forces are stronger, taking more energy to overcome

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77
Q

Which has a higher boiling point, a branched-chain alkane or straight-chain alkane?

A

Straight-chain alkane

78
Q

Why do branched-chain alkanes have a lower boiling point than straight-chain alkanes?

A

Branched-chain alkanes can’t pack so closely together and so have a smaller surface contact - meaning London forces are reduced

79
Q

Do alkanes undergo complete or incomplete combustion when burned with enough oxygen?

A

Complete combustion to form CO2 and H2O

80
Q

Why do smaller alkanes burn more easily?

A

They’re more volatile (turn into gas easier)

81
Q

Why do alkanes make good fuels?

A

Some energy is needed to break the covalent bonds, but a lot more energy is released by forming new product bonds

82
Q

Larger alkanes release more… than smaller alkanes, because more CO2 and H2O are formed?

A

Larger alkanes release more energy per mole than smaller alkanes, because more CO2 and H2O are formed?

83
Q

Name 2 uses of propane?

A

Central heating and as cooking fuel

84
Q

What is the molar volume of all gases at standard temperature and pressure?

A

24 dm^3

85
Q

What type of combustion occurs if there isn’t much oxygen around when burning an alkane?

A

Incomplete combustion

86
Q

What are the products of incomplete combustion?

A

Carbon Monoxide and Water

87
Q

Why is carbon monoxide dangerous?

A

Carbon Monoxide is better at bonding to the haemoglobin in your bloodstream than oxygen is. This means that if you breathe some in, it’ll bond to the haemoglobin, meaning less oxygen reaches your cells

88
Q

What makes carbon monoxide hard to detect?

A

It’s a colourless, odourless gas

89
Q

What is bond fission?

A

Breaking a covalent bond

90
Q

What is a single covalent bond?

A

A shared pair of electrons between 2 atoms

91
Q

What are the 2 types of bond fission?

A

Heterolytic fission

Homolytic fission

92
Q

What is heterolytic fission?

A

Where the bond breaks unevenly with one of the bonded atoms receiving both electrons from the bonded pair

93
Q

What are the 2 products of heterolytic fission?

A

A positively charged cation and a negatively charged anion

94
Q

What is the general equation for heterolytic fission?

A

XY —> X+ + Y-

95
Q

What is homolytic fission?

A

Where the bonds break evenly and each bonding atom receives one electron from the bonding pair

96
Q

What are the products of homolytic fission?

A

2 electrically uncharged radicals

97
Q

What is a radical?

A

A particle with an unpaired electron

98
Q

What is the general equation for homolytic fission?

A

XY —> X• + Y•

99
Q

What is a reaction mechanism?

A

A diagram using curly arrows to show the movement of electrons in a reaction

100
Q

How are haloalkanes formed?

A

By reacting a halogen with an alkane

101
Q

What is a photochemical reaction?

A

A reaction that’s started by light

102
Q

How does a haloalkane form from the reaction between a halogen and an alkane?

A

During the formation of the haloalkane, the Hydrogen atom is replaced by a halogen atom in a radical substitution reaction

103
Q

Describe the reaction of the synthesis of chloromethane

A

A mixture of methane and chlorine exposed to UV light reacts (with a small explosion) to form chloromethane

104
Q

What is the equation for the synthesis of chloromethane?

A

CH4 + Cl2 —> CH3Cl + HCl

105
Q

What are the 3 stages of the reaction mechanism for the synthesis of chloromethane?

A

Initiation
Propagation
Termination

106
Q

What occurs in the initiation step of a reaction mechanism?

A

Radicals are produced

107
Q

What is photodissociation?

A

When the sunlight provides enough energy to break some of the covalent bonds

108
Q

What is the equation for the initiation step in the reaction mechanism of the synthesis of chloromethane?

A

Cl2 —> 2Cl• (homolytic fission)

109
Q

What occurs in the propagation step of a reaction mechanism?

A

Radicals are used up and created in a chain reaction

110
Q

What are the 2 equations for the propagation step for the synthesis of chloromethane?

A

Cl• + CH4 —> CH3• + HCl (chlorine radical attacks methane)

CH3• + Cl2 —> CH3Cl + Cl• (the new methyl radical then attacks a chlorine molecule)

111
Q

What occurs in the termination step of a reaction mechanism?

A

Radicals are used up

112
Q

What has to happen to terminate a reaction mechanism in the termination stage?

A

2 radicals have to form together to create a stable molecule (thus terminating the chain reaction)

113
Q

What are the 3 possible equations for the termination stage in the synthesis of chloromethane?

A

CH3• + Cl• —> CH3Cl
CH3• + CH3• —> C2H6
Cl• + Cl• —> Cl2

114
Q

What is the biggest problem with radical substitution if you’re trying to make a specific product?

A

You don’t only get the product after the termination stage, you get a mixture of products

115
Q

What other products, apart from chloromethane, are made in the radical substitution of chlorine and methane?

A

Dichloromethane
Trichloromethane
Tetrachloromethane

116
Q

What is the best way to reduce the chance of by-products forming in radical substitutions?

A

Add the alkane in excess

117
Q

Why does adding the alkane in excess reduce the chance of by-products forming for radical substitution?

A

Because it means there’s more of a chance for the halogen radical to collide only with the alkane molecules, rather than the haloalkane molecules

118
Q

What is the general formula of an alkene?

A

CnH2n

119
Q

Are alkenes saturated or unsaturated?

A

Unsaturated, because they contain the double C=C bond

120
Q

What is the suffix if an alkene has 2 double bonds?

A

..diene

121
Q

What is a double bond made up of?

A

Sigma bond (σ-) and a Pi bond (π-)

122
Q

How does a σ-bond form?

A

2 orbitals overlap directly between the bonded atoms

123
Q

How is a π-bond formed?

A

When 2 p-orbitals overlap sideways

124
Q

Which is strongest, σ-bonds or π-bonds?

A

σ-bonds

125
Q

Why are π-bonds weaker than σ-bonds?

A

The electron density is spread out above and below the nuclei, meaning the electrostatic attraction between the nuclei and the shared pair of electrons is weaker

126
Q

Why is a double bond not twice as strong as a single bond?

A

Because a double bond contains σ-bonds and π-bonds (which are weaker than σ-bonds) whereas a single bond just contains σ-bonds

127
Q

Describe what a double bond looks like?

A

A bit like a hot dog (The π-bond is the bun and the σ-bond is sandwiched in the middle)

128
Q

Does a double carbon-carbon bond have a high or low electron density?

A

High, because there are 2 pairs of electrons

129
Q

Are alkenes reactive or unreactive?

A

Reactive, because they have a high electron density

130
Q

What is an electrophile?

A

An electron-pair acceptor

131
Q

What does having π-bonds make alkenes reactive?

A

Because π-bonds stick out above and below the rest of the molecule, so are likely to be attacked by particles that have a low electron density and can accept the pair of electrons

132
Q

Which is more reactive, alkenes or alkanes?

A

Alkenes, because they contain a double bond

133
Q

What is the shape and bond angle around a C=C double bond in an alkene?

A

Trigonal Planar, 120°

134
Q

Why is the shape around the carbon in a C=C double bond trigonal planar?

A

Because the 3 bonds repel each other as much as possible

135
Q

Why can’t atoms in C=C double bonds not rotate around the bond?

A

Because the p-orbitals have to be in a fixed position in order to overlap and form a π-bond

136
Q

What are stereoisomers?

A

A molecule that has the same structural formula, but its atoms are in a different arrangement in space

137
Q

Why do some alkenes have stereoisomers?

A

Because the atoms can’t rotate around the C=C bond

138
Q

What are the 2 types of stereoisomers?

A

E-isomers

Z-isomers

139
Q

Which stereoisomer is it if the 2 priority groups are on the same side of the double bond?

A

Z-isomer

140
Q

Which stereoisomer is it if the 2 priority groups are on the opposite sides of the double bond?

A

E-isomer

141
Q

Why don’t alkanes form stereoisomers?

A

Because the atoms can rotate around C-C single bonds

142
Q

What is the essential requirement for stereoisomers?

A

Because you must have 2 different groups at each end of the C=C bond

143
Q

What is the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) rules for finding which stereoisomer a molecule is?

A

The highest priority group at each end of the carbon is the one with the highest atomic number directly bonded to the carbon atom

144
Q

What is cis-trans isomerism?

A

A special type of E/Z isomerism where the 2 carbon atoms each side of the double bond have at least one group in common

145
Q

Which is the cis-isomer?

A

The molecule with 2 identical groups on the same side of the C=C bond

146
Q

Which is the trans-isomer?

A

The molecule with 2 identical groups on opposite sides of the C=C bond

147
Q

What is electrophilic addition?

A

A reaction mechanism where a double bond in an alkene opens up and atoms are added to the carbon atoms

148
Q

Why do electrophilic addition reactions occur?

A

Because electrophiles haven’t got many electrons, so they attack places which have a high electron density (such as the C=C bond in an alkene)

149
Q

What is a nucleophile?

A

An electron-pair donor

150
Q

What is a carbocation?

A

Organic ion containing a positively charged carbon atom

151
Q

How can you make an alkane from an alkene?

A

Reacting the alkene with H2, so that electrophilic addition reaction occurs

152
Q

What are the conditions needed to convert an alkene into an alkane by reacting H2 with the alkene?

A

150°C and a nickel catalyst

153
Q

What is the product of the reaction between an alkene and a halogen?

A

A dihaloalkane

154
Q

What would you observe if you added bromine water to a solution containing C=C bonds?

A

The solution would change colour from orange to colourless

155
Q

Why does the solution turn colourless when bromine water is added to a solution containing C=C bonds?

A

Because the C=C bond opens up and the 2 Br atoms are added to the carbon atoms forming a dibromoalkane

156
Q

How do you produce an alcohol from an alkene?

A

Hydrate the alkene by steam

157
Q

What conditions are needed to hydrate an alkene to form an alcohol?

A

300°C
60-70 atm
Solid phosphoric acid catalyst

158
Q

What can be said about the yield of producing ethanol by hydrating ethene?

A

The yield is low, but the unreacted ethene gas can be recycled

159
Q

What reaction forms a haloalkane from an alkene?

A

The electrophilic addition of an alkene reacting with hydrogen halide

160
Q

What is Markownikoff’s Law?

A

If the hydrogen halides are added to a symmetrical alkene, such as ethene, only one product can form. If it’s added to an unsymmetrical alkene then there are 2 possible products

161
Q

What determines how much of each product if formed in electrophilic addition reactions?

A

How stable the cation formed in the middle of the reaction is

162
Q

What is a primary cation?

A

A cation bonded to one alkyl group

163
Q

What is a secondary cation?

A

A cation bonded to 2 alkyl groups

164
Q

What is a tertiary cation?

A

A cation bonded to 3 alkyl groups

165
Q

Which carbocation is the most stable?

A

Carbocations with more alkyl groups, as they’re more stable because the alkyl groups move the electrons towards the positive charge (to stabilise it)

166
Q

Why are more stable carbocations more likely to form than less stable ones?

A

The first step of the electrophilic addition is more likely to lead to the formation of the most stable carbocation

167
Q

What is the product of which there is most of from electrophilic addition called?

A

Major product

168
Q

What is a polymer?

A

A long molecule formed from lots of monomers joining together

169
Q

What is a monomer?

A

The individual small alkenes (with a chain length of 2 carbons)

170
Q

What is an addition polymer?

A

A long-chain molecule made by lots of small alkene molecules adding together

171
Q

For addition polymerisation reactions, what letter do you need to right next to both products and reactants?

A

N, to show that there is repeating units N amount of times

172
Q

How do you find the monomer of a long-chain polymer?

A

Find the repeating unit (carbon chain of 2) and add a double bond

173
Q

Why are polymers not biodegradable?

A

Because they’re unreactive

174
Q

Why is polymers not being biodegradable a problem?

A

Because it means they’re very hard to dispose of

175
Q

What are 2 advantages of using landfill sites?

A

They’re cheap

Don’t release toxins such as HCl

176
Q

What are 2 advantages of burning polymer waste?

A

Saves on landfill sites

Produces energy

177
Q

What is a disadvantage of burning polymer waste?

A

Pollution, as PVS turns into toxic HCl

178
Q

Give 2 sustainable ways of disposing of polymers?

A

Burn it to produce energy

Crack it to smaller molecules, more useful molecules

179
Q

What is PVC?

A

Polyvinylchloride

180
Q

Where is PVC used?

A

In window frames

181
Q

What is PTFE?

A

Poly(tetrafluoroethene)

182
Q

Where is PTFE used?

A

Lubricants and non-stick frying pans because it’s frictionless

183
Q

What is poly(propene) used for?

A

Rope because it’s strong

184
Q

What are the 3 reasons why we use landfill to dispose of plastic?

A

If the plastic is difficult to separate from other waste
If plastic is not in sufficient quantities to make separation financially worthwhile
If plastic is too technically difficult to recycle

185
Q

What are most plastics made from?

A

Non-renewable oil fractions

186
Q

Why does recycling plastic make sense?

A

You’re conserving the non-renewable oil fractions

187
Q

What are the 2 methods of recycling plastics?

A

Melting and then remoulding

Cracking into monomers

188
Q

What happens to the waste toxic gas produced from when you burn plastics?

A

It’s passed through scrubbers which can neutralise toxic gas such as HCl

189
Q

What are biodegradable polymers made from?

A

Can be made from materials such as starch or from hydrocarbon isoprene

190
Q

What are 2 advantages of using renewable raw materials?

A

They’re infinite resources, so won’t run out like oil will

Over their lifetime, some plant-based polymers save energy compared to oil-based plastics

191
Q

What are 2 disadvantages of using biodegradable polymers?

A

They need the right conditions to decompose

More expensive than oil-based equivalents

192
Q

Give 2 examples of where biodegradable polymers are used?

A

Plastic sheeting used to protect plants from frost

Some packaging

A Level Chemistry Year 1 (9 decks)

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