Unit 4

Question 1

Instead of word order, why should we use the term constituent order?

Answer 1

The reason for this is simple: subjects, objects, and even verbs can be more than one word. For example, consider the sentence “The grizzly bear was following the dazed hikers.” The complete subject (“The grizzly bear”), the complete verb (“was following”), and the direct object (“the dazed hikers”) are all more than one word, but each is a single constituent.

Question 2

Instead of word order, why should we use the term constituent order?

Answer 2

The reason for this is simple: subjects, objects, and even verbs can be more than one word. For example, consider the sentence “The grizzly bear was following the dazed hikers.” The complete subject (“The grizzly bear”), the complete verb (“was following”), and the direct object (“the dazed hikers”) are all more than one word, but each is a single constituent.

Question 3

What is the default constituent order of Greek?

Answer 3

Verb–Subject–Object (VSO)

Though Greek has a more flexible order than English

Question 4

What types of words do commonly appear before the verb without contradicting the VSO ordering?

Answer 4

(1) some conjunctions, (2) interjections, and (3) most adverbs (including the negatives οὐ and μή).

Question 5

Is VSO the most common ordering?

Answer 5

No

But this is the default, any deviations is marked for some information

Question 6

What are two central reasons for “fronting” a constituent in front of a verb?

Answer 6

1. It marks asserted information (which is generally new or “non-established” information) as being particularly significant (the technical term for fronted asserted information is “marked focus”)
2. It marks presupposed information as being that which is going to be discussed in the following text (the technical term we use for fronted presupposed information is “point of departure”).[4] Points of departure are typically old or “established” information, or at least they are information that is accessible by virtue of information that has already been established previously in the text

Question 7

What is the technical term for fronted asserted information?

Answer 7

marked focus

Question 8

What is the technical term for fronted presupposed information?

Answer 8

point of departure
[ Levinsohn (Discourse Features, 1–68) uses the terms “point of departure” and also speaks of “focus” that is “marked.” Instead of “point of departure,” Runge uses the alternative label “frame of reference” and Buth uses the label “contextualizing constituent.” Similarly, instead of “marked focus,” Runge speaks simply of “emphasis.”]

Question 9

On which basis is default constituent order decided?

1. statistics: the default is the order that is the most common
2. explanatory power: the default order is the one that most easily explains the deviations represented by other orders
3. subject-initial: the order subject–verb–object is universal
4. verb-final: the verb will always be at the end of the clause

Answer 9

Your answer : explanatory power: the default order is the one that most easily explains the deviations represented by other orders

Question 10

What is a “point of departure”?

Answer 10

a starting point for a clause or larger unit of discourse. [Levinsohn states that a point of departure is “a device that signals discontinuities of situation, of reference, and sometimes of action, viz., the placement at the beginning of a clause or sentence of an adverbial or nominal constituent.” (Discourse Features, 7). For a full discussion of points of departure, see Levinsohn, Discourse Features, 7–28; Runge, Discourse Grammar, 207–242.]

Question 11

How does an author develop the “point of departure”?

Answer 11

Points of departure in Greek take known or presupposed information (i.e., the information is “old” or at least related to what is old information) and put it at the front of the clause. By placing a point of departure in this marked position, the author communicates to the reader: “Something in the discourse has changed since the last sentence and you need to interpret the words that follow the point of departure as being related to it.”

Question 12

The following underlined phrases are all points of departure:

Answer 12

1. After studying Greek in college, Mike dreamed of being a Bible translator.
2. As for the cheesecake, it is all gone.
3. I unpacked your clothing for you. Your shirts I put in this first drawer; your socks I put in this second drawer; and your slacks I hung up in the closet.
   [Each of the underlined points of departure above provide a starting point for processing the information that follows. Imagine that the first sentence appeared in a biographical description and that the readers had already learned from an earlier part of the description that Mike went to college and that he studied Greek. Thus, Mike studying Greek in college would be old information. Imagine that the second sentence is part of a broad-ranging conversation in which a wife has already expressed that she would like a piece of cheesecake for dessert and now her husband returns to the topic of the cheesecake. Here, then, the cheesecake is a known entity and functions as the point of departure for the bad news: the cheesecake is all gone. Imagine that the third sentence is spoken by a wife to her husband after arriving in their hotel room. After the statement “I unpacked your clothing for you,” the noun “clothing” (which is a general term that can include items like shirts, socks, and slacks) is now old information. Thus “your shirts,” “your socks,” and “your slacks” are all related to old information, and each one of these phrases functions as a point of departure within its clause, shifting from one referent to the next and “framing” the rest of the information in each clause as being related to that point of departure.]The first example sentence above illustrates a situational point of departure, while the last two example sentences illustrate referential points of departure.”

Question 13

Point of departure in simplified terms.

Answer 13

A point of departure uses information that is already known to begin to talk about information that is new. Using the known to explain the unknown.

Question 14

What is a referential point of departure?

Answer 14

Points of departure that signal that there has been a change in reference.

Question 15

Two examples of referential points of departure:

Answer 15

Ὑμῖν τὸ μυστήριον δέδοται τῆς βασιλείας τοῦ θεοῦ·
To you the mystery of the kingdom of God has been given,

ἐκείνοις δὲ τοῖς ἔξω ἐν παραβολαῖς τὰ πάντα γίνεται
but to those who are outside all things come in parables

The pronoun Ὑμῖν is old information since the addressees are the same individuals as those in v. 10 (indeed, any pronoun that has an antecedent is old information by virtue of the fact that the antecedent has already been mentioned). The phrase “those who are outside” is also old information, with Jesus’ family being an example of those who are outside (note the use of ἔξω twice in the prior context to refer to Jesus’ family in 3:31 and 3:32).[4] The fronted ἐκείνοις . . . τοῖς ἔξω indicates that Jesus is shifting from a statement involving “you” (Ὑμῖν) to a statement involving “those who are outside.” Indeed, the shift between two referential points of departure in such close proximity serves to heighten the contrast between them

Question 16

What are the grammatical requirements for a referential point of departure?

Answer 16

They can be any grammatically required element of the clause, whether subject, direct object, indirect object, or prepositional phrase

Question 17

How can we explicitly translate a referential point of departure?

Answer 17

If we want to explicitly translate a point of departure into English, we can often use the words “as for” as helping words. Thus we could translate 4:14’s ὁ σπείρων τὸν λόγον σπείρει with “As for the sower, he sows the word.”

Question 18

How can we explicitly translate a referential point of departure?

Answer 18

If we want to explicitly translate a point of departure into English, we can often use the words “as for” as helping words. Thus we could translate 4:14’s ὁ σπείρων τὸν λόγον σπείρει with “As for the sower, he sows the word.”

Question 19

Summary of referential point of departure

Answer 19

A referential point of departure is a marked construction that involves moving a constituent before the clause’s verb (i.e., “fronting” the constituent), thus violating the default VSO word order. This marked word order draws attention to the fronted constituent in order to identify it as a reference point for what is about to be spoken about. It typically also involves a referential shift from something in the preceding context to something else. When appearing with an also-fronted marked focal constituent, the point of departure will appear first.

Question 20

What are situational points of departure?

Answer 20

1. Situational points of departure, like referential points of departure, function as starting points for what follows.
2. They provide a context for the clause that follows, connecting an event or set of events to their context via time, place, or logical relationship (e.g., cause, purpose, result, condition). Within narrative, however, most situational points of departure are temporal.

Question 21

Are situational points of departure foreground or background?

Answer 21

These categories are inherently background information, so situational points of departure do not move the narrative forward.

Question 22

In reference to the ordering of the constituent parts, how is the situational point of departure structured?

Answer 22

Like referential points of departure, in Greek they appear before the main verb in the sentence (though not necessarily immediately before the verb).

Question 23

What part of speech are situational points of departure?

Answer 23

They are adverbial in nature, rather than being a subject, object, or other constituent grammatically required by the verb.

Question 24

Consider the following examples in English, with the situational points of departure underlined:

Answer 24

1. After she went home, Sarah ate dinner and curled up with a good book. (temporal point of departure)
2. Because Steve was not paying attention, he had to wait until the next train arrived. (causal point of departure)
3. If Jane finishes her homework, she can go play

Notice that all of the situational points of departure are adverbial in nature, although the specific adverbial relationship to the main clause can vary (e.g., temporal, causal, or conditional).outside. (conditional point of departure)

Question 25

Do situational and referential points of departure only look forward?

Answer 25

No.
not only do situational (and referential) points of departure look forward, providing a starting point for what follows, but they also look backward and typically involve a “switch” of some sort, whether a switch in time or some other kind of switch.

Question 26

a situational point of departure appears in verse 29. This one comes at the end of another of Jesus’ parables, which describes the patient waiting of a farmer until the time for harvest comes:
ὅταν δὲ παραδοῖ ὁ καρπός, εὐθὺς ἀποστέλλει τὸ δρέπανον, ὅτι παρέστηκεν ὁ θερισμός.
Now whenever the grain permits, immediately he sends forth the sickle because the harvest has come.

Answer 26

Here we can clearly see the connection to what came previously in vv. 26–29. The farmer has been waiting for the grain, sleeping and rising, and the grain was growing. Then v. 29 opens with a point of departure (ὅταν δὲ παραδοῖ ὁ καρπός) to signal a temporal shift—the time has come when the grain “permits” (that is, the grain is ripe). Thus, the point of departure looks backward. But it also looks forward, providing the temporal setting for the next event that follows in the narrative, the sending forth of the sickle to harvest. Thus the main clause needs to be read within the context of the point of departure: the farmer only sends forth his sickle when the grain has reached maturity.

Question 27

Which is the BEST description of the function of a situational point of departure?

Answer 27

Your answer : situational points of departure function as starting points, providing a context for the clause that follows

Question 28

In which position do situational points of departure appear in a clause? Select the BEST answer.

Answer 28

They do not appear immediately before the verb; they can appear their, but the best answer is in the front of the sentence.

Question 29

What is the difference between a situational point of departure and a referential point of departure?

1. unlike referential points of departure, situational points of departure are not adverbial and are necessarily background information
2. unlike referential points of departure, situational points of departure are not adverbial and can function as a either background or foreground
3. unlike referential points of departure, situational points of departure are adverbial and are necessarily background information
4. unlike referential points of departure, situational points of departure are adverbial and can function as a either background or foreground

Answer 29

3. unlike referential points of departure, situational points of departure are adverbial and are necessarily background information

Question 30

Consider Mark 4:32a: καὶ ὅταν σπαρῇ, ἀναβαίνει. Which is the best description the constituent order in this clause?

1. displays a marked focus constituent
2. displays a referential point of departure
3. displays default constituent order
4. displays a situational point of departure

Answer 30

Your answer : displays a situational point of departure

Correct! Points of departure involving time (i.e, temporal points of departure) fall under the broader umbrella of situational points of departure.

Question 31

True or False? A clause can have more than one point of departure.

Answer 31

Your answer : True

Question 32

Which of the following is NOT a function of points of departure?

1. to indicate that the fronted information is prominent nonestablished information
2. to function as a starting point for the communication that follows the point of departure
3. to anchor the communication that follows the point of departure to that which precedes the point of departure

Answer 32

Your answer : to indicate that the fronted information is prominent nonestablished information
Correct! Fronted information that marks nonestablished information as prominent is called “marked focus,” not a point of departure.

Question 33

Consider Mark 4:32d: ὥστε δύνασθαι ὑπὸ τὴν σκιὰν αὐτοῦ τὰ πετεινὰ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ κατασκηνοῦν. True or False? This clause has two fronted constituents.

Answer 33

Your answer : True

Correct! Both ὑπὸ τὴν σκιὰν αὐτοῦ and τὰ πετεινὰ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ are fronted with respect to κατασκηνοῦν.

Question 34

Consider Mark 4:34b: κατʼ ἰδίαν δὲ τοῖς ἰδίοις μαθηταῖς ἐπέλυεν πάντα. True or False? The phrase τοῖς ἰδίοις μαθηταῖς is a situational point of departure.

Answer 34

Your answer : False

Correct! The phrase τοῖς ἰδίοις μαθηταῖς is a referential point of departure.

Question 35

Consider Mark 4:36c: καὶ ἄλλα πλοῖα ἦν μετʼ αὐτοῦ. True or False? This clause refers to an event.

Answer 35

Your answer : False

Correct! The verb ἦν (from εἰμί) necessarily refers to a state.

Question 36

Consider Mark 4:37b: τὰ κύματα ἐπέβαλλεν εἰς τὸ πλοῖον. Why does τὰ κύματα appear in front of the verb?

1. Because τὰ κύματα is a referential point of departure.
2. Because τὰ κύματα is a situational point of departure.
3. Because τὰ κύματα is a marked focal constituent.
4. Because τὰ κύματα is actually part of the previous clause.

Answer 36

This is a referential point of departure, shifting attention from the storm in v. 37a to the waves in v. 37b.

Question 37

Which is the BEST description of the effect of a string of historical presents?

Answer 37

Your answer : They are cumulatively forward-pointing toward the climax of the narrative.

Question 38

Consider Mark 4:38a: καὶ αὐτὸς ἦν ἐν τῇ πρύμνῃ. Which is the BEST description of the constituent order in this clause?

Answer 38

The fronted αὐτὸς in v. 38a is another referential point of departure, shifting attention from the boat in v. 37c to Jesus.

Question 39

True or False? A verb can be placed at the end of a clause to emphasize it.

Answer 39

Your answer : True

Question 40

Consider Mark 4:6a: καὶ ὅτε ἀνέτειλεν ὁ ἥλιος ἐκαυματίσθη. Which is the function of ὅτε ἀνέτειλεν ὁ ἥλιος?
Select one:
a. it is a referential point of departure
b. it has no special function
c. it is a situational point of departure

Answer 40

c. it is a situational point of departure

Question 41

Consider Mark 4:7a: καὶ ἄλλο ἔπεσεν εἰς τὰς ἀκάνθας. Which statement is true of this clause?
Select one:
a. the default constituent order of this clause assigns no special prominence to any constituent
b. ἄλλο is a point of departure that shifts attention from one type of seed to another
c. the fronting of ἄλλο is a marked constituent that gives emphasis to εἰς τὰς ἀκάνθας

Answer 41

b. ἄλλο is a point of departure that shifts attention from one type of seed to another

Question 42

Which is the BEST description of where referential points of departure appear in a clause (excluding consideration of conjunctions, interjections, and adverbs)?
Select one:
a. directly before the subject 
b. at the end of the clause 
c. at the beginning of the clause 
d. directly after the verb

Answer 42

c. at the beginning of the clause [notice that d is not the correct answer]

Question 43

Consider Mark 4:9: Ὃς ἔχει ὦτα ἀκούειν ἀκουέτω. Which is the BEST explanation of why the relative clause Ὃς ἔχει ὦτα ἀκούειν appears before its main verb?
Select one:
a. it is the subject of the main verb and subjects always come before the verb in Greek clauses
b. it is a referential point of departure
c. relative clauses always come before their main verb
d. it is a situational point of departure

Answer 43

b. it is a referential point of departure

Question 44

Which is a motivation that influences deviations from default constituent order?

Answer 44

the status of information communicated in the clause, i.e., whether old/accessible or new/asserted

Question 45

Which is the BEST description of the function of a situational point of departure?
Select one:

Answer 45

a. situational points of departure function as starting points for the speaker, providing a setting for the event(s) that follow and typically switch from some previous situation