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Flashcards in Virtue ethics Deck (78)
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1
Q

What is virtue ethics?

A

It goes back to Plato and Aristotle and does not focus on actions being right or wrong, but on how to be a good person. It looks at what makes a good person and the qualities or virtues that make them good. It is agent-centred morality rather than act0centred.

2
Q

What is eudaimonia?

A

The final goal of all human activity- happiness, well-being, human flourishing.

3
Q

What is virtue?

A

Habitually doing what is right- being good requires the practice of a certain kind of behaviour.

4
Q

What is Plato’s moral theory?

A

Plato’s moral theory is not one of judging particular actions. It centres around the achievement of man’s highest good, which involves the right cultivation of his soul (inner well-being) and the hamonious well-being of his life (eudaimonia) Happiness must be attined through the pursuit of virtue and actions are good when they help to achieve this.

5
Q

What virtues did Plato seem to consider central?

A

Temperance, courage, prudence and justice. These later became known as the cardinal virtues. They were later added to with three theological virtues of faith, hope and charity. Plato thought that when these virtues are in balance a person’s actions will be good.

6
Q

What is the alternative name for virtue ethics?

A

Aretaic ethics, from the Greek words arete, which simply means any kind of excellence of virtue.

7
Q

What quote does Aristotle use to say that the point of engaging in ethics is to become good?

A

“For we are enquiring not in order to know what virtue is but in order to become good since otherwise our enquiry would be of no use.”

8
Q

What does Aristotle distinguish between?

A

He distinguishes between things which are good as means (for the sake of something else) and things which are good as ends (for their own sake only)

9
Q

What does Aristotle see as the purpose of human activity?

A

He sees one final and overriding end of human activity, one final good- eudaimonia or happiness, human flourishing. He discusses the character traits of a person who is going to achieve eudaimonia.

10
Q

What is at the centre of Aristotle’s virtue ethics?

A

At the centre of his description of the good are the virtues which shape human character and ultimately human behaviour. He suggests that human well-being and human flourishing is a life characterized by the virtues.

11
Q

What did Aristotle think a good human life is?

A

A good human life is one lived in harmony and co-operation with other people, since Aristotle saw people as not only rational beings but also as social beings. We live in groups and he saw the well-being of the group as more important than that of a single member.

12
Q

What two types of virtues did Aristotle claim existed?

A
  1. Intellectual Virtues, developed by training and education

2. Moral virtues developed by habit.

13
Q

What are intellectual virtues?

A

Characteristics of thought and reason- technical skill,scientific knowledge, prudence, intelligence and wisdom.

14
Q

What are moral virtues?

A

Qualities of character such as courage, friendliness and truthfulness.

15
Q

What does Aristotle compare the virtues to?

A

To skills acquired through practice and habit. To become virtuous then is rather like playing a musical instrument- it needs teaching and practice before it is possible to play well. We are all capable of being virtuous and need to get into the habit of acting virtuously from childhood so that we enjoy being virtuous.

16
Q

What quote does Aristotle write about how we acquire virtues?

A

“We acquire virtues by first doing virtuous acts. We acquire skill by practicing the activities involved in the skill…in the same way we become just by doing just acts, temperate by doing temperate acts and courageous by doing acts of courage.”

17
Q

Who did Aristotle believed would develop moral and intellectual virtues?

A

While all people have the potential to develop moral and intellectual virtues, only a few will actually achieve this- for Aristotle these were the gentlemen philosophers and today we could say that this depends in part on social factors: where we are brought up and the environment in which we live.

18
Q

What person did Aristotle believe would achieve eudaimonia?

A

He saw that a person who achieved audaimonia was someone who used their reason well.

19
Q

How did Aristotle view reason?

A

He saw reason as the supreme human virtue, but by this he did not only mean an ability to think, but also a moral sense- reason included putting into action what you used your reason to judge as good. Reason is practical and involves both understanding and responding.

20
Q

Where is virtue to be found?

A

In the Golden Mean, which involves finding the balance between two means- this is the best way to live in society, as extremes of character are unhelpful Aristotle always said that virtue is to be found between two vices, each of which involves either an excess or a deficiency of the true virtue.

21
Q

What did Aristotle say that the difference between virtue and vice was a matter of?

A

He said that the difference between virtue and vice in both emotions and action was a matter of balance and extremes. However, the mean is not the same for everyone and depends on circumstances- you need to apply phronesis (practical wisdom) to decide on the right course of action in each situation.

22
Q

How is phronesis acquired?

A

It is acquired as we grow up and move away from rules and the demands of authority figures to a more autonomous, person-centred and virtue-centred morality.

23
Q

What is the Golden Mean?

A

The balance of extremes of virtues and vices. A balance between excess (having too much of something) and deficiency (having too little of something)

24
Q

What is Phronesis?

A

According to Aristotle, the virtue most needs for any other virtue to be develped. Balancing self-interest with that of others. Needs to be directed by the moral virtues. Is practical wisdom.

25
Q

How can be become virtuous?

A

As virtue is acquired through doing, one way to learn how to be virtuous is to follow the example of virtuous people. Most of us learn how to do things by watching others and imitating them. They are not all ‘perfect people’ but they challenge us to go beyond the minimum, to aspire to ‘moral heights’ and to see what can be achieved.

26
Q

Why was there a revival of interest in virtue ethics?

A

In the 20th century there was a revival of interest in virtue ethics by philosophers who were unhappy with act-centred ethical theories.

27
Q

What do modern versions of Virtue Ethics argue?

A

That the assessment of a person’s character is an important aspect of our ethical thought and needs to be included in any ethical thoery.

28
Q

Why does G.E.M. Anscombe criticise modern moral philosophy?

A

She argued that it is misguided, asking if there can be any moral law if there is no God- what do right and wrong mean without a lawgiver? Both Kantian ethics and Utilitarianism do not depend on God, but they still act-based and ignore the agent; she thought that act-based ethics does not make sense because it ignores a belief people no longer hold, and in stressing the principle of autonomy it neglects the community aspect of morality.

29
Q

What alternative did G.E.M Anscombe put forward to modern moral philosophy?

A

She suggests an answer in the idea of eudaimonia, human flourishing which does not depend on any God.

30
Q

What did Philippa Foot attempt to do?

A

She attempted to modernise Aristotle’s Virtue ethics while still keeping the Aristotelian understanding of character and virtue.

31
Q

What does Philippa Foot argue about the important o the agent?

A

She recognises the importance of the person’s own reasoning in the practice of virtue ethics and claims that the virtues benefit the individual by leading to flourishing and stresses that the virtuous person does far more than conform to the conventions of society.

32
Q

What does Philoppa Foot argue about virtues?

A

She argues that a virtue does not operate as a virtue when turned to a bad end (e.g. when someone needs daring to commit a murder). VIrtues are good for us and help us to correct harmful human passions and temptations.

33
Q

What does Alasdair McIntyre argue about ethical theories?

A

He argues that ethical theories have simply resulted in ethical disagreements. The result of this, he claims is that people do not think that are any moral truths and consider one opinion to be as good as any other opinion. He argues that most people’s attitudes today are based on emotivism, and that people often speak and act as if emotivism was true.

34
Q

What does Alasdair McIntrye say about the Age of Englightment?

A

He concluded that the Age of Enlightenment, which gave rise to theories such as Utilitarianism and Kantianism, had lost sight of the idea of morality being people acheiving their true telos- function or purpose.

35
Q

What idea of morality does Alasdair McIntyre want to restore?

A

The idea that morality should be seen in terms of human purpose, but he thought it would not be possible to restore Aristotle’s theory of function and so he attempts to make human function, and so human virtue, depend on community. These virtues improve and evolve through time.

36
Q

What virtues does James Keenan suggest?

A

Prudence, Justice, Fidelity, Self-care and Mercy.

37
Q

What virtues does James Rachels suggest?

A

Courage, Honesty, and Loyalty to support friendship.

38
Q

What are virtues for Alasdair McIntyre?

A

For MacIntyre virtues are “any virtues which sustain the households and communities in which mean and women seek for good together”. He opposed much of the individualism of today.

39
Q

What does Rosalind Hursthouse’s virtue ethics say?

A

It has a very Aristotelian framework, even though she does not agree with all of Aristotle’s conclusions. She defends a version of virtue ethics which claims that virtues are virtues because they help a person achieve eudaimonia, and so living a virtuous life is a good thing for a human being.

40
Q

What does Rosalind Hursthouse say virtues do?

A

Like Julia Annas she sees the virtues as shaping the virtuous person’s practical reasoning in characteristic way, and not simply as shaping that person’s attitudes or actions. For Hursthouse being virtuous is the most reliable path to flourishing and she seems to think that no other part is as reliable.

41
Q

How does Rosalind Hursthouse address the major criticism of virtue ethics not providing guidance in moral dilemmas?

A

She argues that it can provide some guidance, not by telling us how a virtuous person would act, but by showing how a virtuous person would think about a moral dilemma.

42
Q

How does Michael Slote describe virtue ethics?

A

As being mostly based on our common-sense ideas and intuitions about what counts as a virtue, and prefers to use the word ‘admirable’ to describe an action, rather than ‘good’ or excellent’ which needs qualifying and explaining. He sees the opposite as ‘deplorable’ actions, which can mean both foolish and careless and morally blameworthy actions.

43
Q

How does Michael Slote describe virtues?

A

As “An inner trait or disposition of the individual.” So a virtue is a kind of balanced caring between those who are close to us, namely family and friends, and people in general. He goes on to say that morally admirable caring could, in some way, copy the sort of love we have for those to whom we are close and will always express balanced caring.

44
Q

Why could it be argued that Michael Slote’s view isn’t helpful?

A

Slote’s view does seem to allow a wide range of actions by the person facing a moral dilemma, as a wide range of actions could be fitted into a life that showed balanced caring and does not seem to help very much when having to choose between a family member and strangers.

45
Q

How does Michael Slote explain the difference between agent-focused and agent-based theories?

A

Agent-focused theories understand the moral life in terms of what it is to be a virtuous person, where virtues are inner dispositions- Aristotle’s Virtue ethics is an example of this. Agent-based theories evaluate actions according to the inner life and motive of the people who do such actions.

46
Q

What does Michael Slote focus on?

A

On care and concern for others and empathy- he looks at the motives more than the community aspect of virtues.

47
Q

What does feminism say about virtue ethics?

A

It has been developed by feminist writes such as Annette Baier. They claim that men often think morally in terms of justice and autonomy, which could be seen as ‘masculine’ traits, whereas women think morally in terms of caring, nurturing and self-sacrifice. Baier advocates a view of ethics that takes account of our natural biases. (care for child, caring more for family and friends)

48
Q

What are the strengths of virtue ethics?

A
  1. Avoids having to use a formula
  2. Distinguishes good people from legalists
  3. Motivates people to want to be good
  4. Explains how we learn moral principles
  5. It enables us to integrate many aspects of life
  6. Sees it as good to be biased to people close to us
  7. Stress the importance of character
49
Q

What do we mean when we say a strength of virtue ethics is that it avoids having to use a formula?

A

Virtue ethics avoids having to use a formula (e.g. the greatest good for the greatest number) to work out what we ought to do and focuses instead on the kind of person we ought to be.

50
Q

What do we mean when we say a strength of virtue ethics is that it distinguishes good people from legalists?

A

Virtue ethics understands the need to distinguish good people from legalists- just because one obeys the law and follows the rules does not make one a good person.

51
Q

What do we mean when we say a strength of virtue ethics is that it motivates people to want to be good?

A

Virtue ethics stresses the importance of motivating people to want to be good- it stresses the importance of education in showing that good actions are their own reward. It shows how we acquire and learn virtues by imitating others.

52
Q

What do we mean when we say a strength of virtue ethics is that it explains how we learn moral principles?

A

Virtue ethics tells us how we learn moral principles and involves our entire life, as every moment, even the most mundane, is an opportunity for developing a virtue.

53
Q

What do we mean when we say a strength of virtue ethics is that it enables us to integrate many aspects of life?

A

Virtue ethics enables us to integrate many aspects of life- our emotional commitment to others, our friends, social responsibilities- into our ethical reflection; it looks at what makes life worthwhile rather than looking at what is right or wrong in a particular situation or particular moment in our lives. It does not reject our emotions but includes them and so is more in tune with how people naturally react to an ethical dilemma. It relates our ethical choices to the bigger picture.

54
Q

What do we mean when we say that a strength of virtue ethics it sees being biased to people close to us as good?

A

Virtue ethics sees it as good to be biased in favour of friends and family unlike Utilitarianism or Kant which sees impartiality as important.

55
Q

What do we mean when we say a strength of virtue ethics is that it stresses the importance of character?

A

Virtue ethics does not pretend to be able to tell us what a good person would do in every possible situation but encourages us to be more like such a person so that we will not need an ethical theory to make our decisions for us. It stresses the importance of character- after all, someone who helps the poor out of compassion does seem to be morally superior to someone who does it out of duty.

56
Q

What are the weaknesses of virtue ethics?

A
  1. A major difficult in identifying the virtues. Are virtues culturally relative?
  2. how can virtue ethics be applied to moral dilemmas?
  3. Virtue ethics seems to praise some virtues that we might see as immoral (e.g. soldiers fighting unjust wars may be courageous, not morally good)
  4. Difficult to decide who is virtuous
  5. Seems incapable of dealing with big issues
  6. Depends on some final end to our lives
57
Q

What do we mean when we criticise virtue ethics because it is difficult to see how they can be applied to moral dilemmas?

A

Robert Louden raised this point: virtue ethics does not help people facing a crisis because it does not give any clear rules for action. It is difficult to work out what is the virtuous response to stem-cell research or abortion. Virtue ethics does not give us any concrete answers and only says it is a matter for the practical wisdom of the person facing the situation.

58
Q

What do we mean when we criticise virtue ethics because it is difficult to decide who is virtuous?

A

Robert Louden also points out that it is difficult to decide who is virtuous, as actions which appear virtuous on the outside may not necessarily have good motives and vice versa.

59
Q

What do we mean when we criticise virtue ethics as it seems incapable of dealing with big issues?

A

Virtue ethics does not seem to have room for basic concepts such as rights and obligations, so as a thoery of ethics it seems incapable of dealing with big issues- Virtue ethics does not always have a view about what makes an action right or wrong.

60
Q

What do we mean when we criticise virtue ethics as it depends on some final end to our lives?

A

Virtue ethics depends on some final end which gives shape to our lives- there may not be one and being virtuous may not affect it anyway.

61
Q

What does Annas say virtue ethics leads to?

A

The reflection of one self e.g. your commitment to others, to your frieds and your social responsibility in general. Therefore virtue ethics looks at the community rather than just yourself.

62
Q

What does Aquinas says helps us to discern the correct course of action?

A

Prudentia (wisom). This is practical wisdom and so you seek guidance, or refer to experience etc.

63
Q

How does the Milgram experiment pose an issue for virtue ethics?

A

This experiment showed that virtuous people are capable of evil acts due to the influence of an authority figure.

64
Q

Why is Aristotle’s theory teleological?

A

Aristotle’s belief was that every action is focused on an aim or outcome. This places his theory amongst teleological ethics. he believed that in everything that we do we have an end or outcome in our minds. This, he then said, could be seen as the ultimate end of ends, which is the greatest good.

65
Q

What did Aristotle understanding happiness or fulfilment as the goal and purpose of life?

A
  1. Happiness as a life of enjoyment of pleasure
  2. Happiness as a free member of society
  3. Happiness as a philosopher
66
Q

What did Aristotle believe about friendship?

A

He believed that friendship was an important social virtue that needs to be developed within society as a whole to encourage personal, as well as societal and altruistic flourishing. Friendship as a virtue will develop the person, but will also by nature develop the friend as long as both continue to cultivate and develop the virtues. For Aristotle friendship is key to our achievement of eudaimonia and therefore of modelling the virtues.

67
Q

Why did Aristotle believe we ought to develop ‘Friendship of the Good’?

A

He believed that we ought to develop ‘friendship of the Good’ (based upon enjoyment of each other/s character) as a means to developing eudaimonia, rather than merely focusing on ‘Friendship of Utility’ (based on necessity and usefulness) or ‘Friendship of Pleasure’ (those based on common interests or enjoyment).

68
Q

According to virtue ethics what is the purpose of doing the moral actions?

A

The purpose of doing the moral actions is to become a better person by developing the virtues. If we aim to develop a certain virtue and in the process of practicing it we perform a moral action, then this would be seen as a good outcome for the development of our virtue.

69
Q

What did Aristotle believe was the advantage of living alongside other people?

A

He believed that living alongside other people encouraged the virtues to develop and the vices to disappear as the social context of acceptable behaviour would ensure that everyone would develop happiness or audaimonia.

70
Q

Why is virtue ethics not just a person ethical system?

A

Although virtue ethics does seem to be a very personal and subjective ethical system, it is also a political and social feature of life, as it must be developed in a social context that encourages all people to flourish.

71
Q

What two different vices did Aristotle claim accompanied every virtue?

A
  1. The vice of deficiency is the distinct lack of the virtues
  2. The vice of excess is entirely too much of the virtue, which leads to excess rather than moderation
72
Q

What is important to remember about the doctrine of the mean?

A

It is not possible to determine a virtue by placing it arithmetically half way between the two vices; it cannot be that exact. It will be different in different situations. Sometimes the brave thing to do is run away. It is also important to note that some actions do not have a mean and searching for one is pointless, e.g. rape.

73
Q

What does Philippa Foot believe about virtues?

A

She believes that virtues are a way for people to flourish by correcting tendencies that we naturally have towards the vices. She would say that there is a human inclination to self-interest, which ought to be corrected by becoming more compassionate or benevolent. She also believed that virtues don’t necessarily guarantee happiness, but they do help in moving towards achieving it.

74
Q

What does Alasdair MacIntyre believe about the importance of society in developing virtues?

A

For MacIntyre and Aristotle, virtues are something that is judged in a society by other people. They judge our actions and behaviour to decide whether it is a morally virtuous act or an example of human excellence. Therefore he encourages a return to the basis of Aristotle’s understanding of virtue by encouraging society to assist in developing virtues that are relevant to the contemporary times.

75
Q

What did Richard Taylor believe about the influence of religion on morality?

A

He was very outspoken against the influence that religion had upon morality. He believed that humans should flourish and achieve their eudaimonia, but that religious teachings undermine this and almost encourage the opposite idea.

76
Q

How does Richard Taylor refer to the Christian teaching of ‘Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth?’

A

If the meek inherit the earth, what encouragement is there then to be a good person and to strive for moral excellence if all that you need to do is lie back and wait for the inheritence? Taylor’s criticism is that CHristianity emphasis equality and to a certain extent the status quo of a self-negating quality, rather than encouraging people to strive to become greater and better people.

77
Q

What is the strengths of virtue ethics?

A
  1. Appeals to both secular and religous morality
  2. Compatible with religious beliefs
  3. It avoids the inequalities that absolutist ethical systems cause and the dubious morality of actions that relativism can justify
  4. It is a logical theory, as it focuses on our practical reasoning and the traits that will help society prosper.
78
Q

How does Susan Wolf criticise virtue ethics?

A

She claims that if everyone is virtuous, then there will be no variety or excitement in the world. We need the negative traits so that we can admire the positive ones. If all people are virtuous, then possibly a sense of apathy or boredom would become apparent, as there would be no variety.