____ is the continuous breakdown and replacement of organic components in the cell, except DNA.
Metabolic Turnover
____ is a reserve of organic substrates used for turnover or energy production?
Nutrient Pool
____ is a nucleotide with 3 phosphates.
ATP
Adenosine Triphosphate
How is ATP energy stored/released?
Unstable covalent bonds store energy
Energy is released by snapping a phosphate off
Where is ATP made?
Cytoplasm & Mitochondria
How is ATP made in the cytoplasm?
Anaerobic Metabolism
How is ATP made in the Mitochondria?
Aerobic Metabolism
What percentage of ATP is made in the Mitochondria through Aerobic Metabolism?
95% - 97%
Mitochondria use what two reactants?
Oxygen & Organic Compounds
Mitochondria use Oxygen & Organic Compounds to produce ____, _____, & ______.
ATP
Water
Carbon Dioxide
What are the 4 parts of the Mitochondria?
Outer Membrane
Inner Membrane Space
Cristae (Folded Inner Membrane)
Matrix (Space inside Inner Membrane)
What organic molecules can be used to make ATP?
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Amino Acids
Nucleic Acids
What happens to the organic molecules before they enter the Mitochondria when producing ATP?
Breakdown into Pyruvate
What is the coenzyme that takes 1 Hydrogen during the Mitochondrial ATP process?
NADH
What is the coenzyme that takes 2 Hydrogens during the Mitochondrial ATP process?
FADH2
Where does the Acetyl CoA formation occur during the Mitochondrial ATP process?
Matrix
Where does the Cytric Acid Cycle occur during the Mitochondrial ATP process?
Matrix
Where does Oxidative Phosphorylation occur during the Mitochondrial ATP process?
Cristae (Inner Membrane)
____ is the transfer of electrons from hydrogen to form ATP?
Oxidative Phosphorylation
The ____ contains the cytochrome proteins in the inner membrane?
Electron Transport System
____ is the enzyme that phosphorylates ADP to make ATP and is powered by a channel that leaks H+ back into the Matrix?
ATP Synthase
What cells store nutrients and give them if they are needed?
Liver Cells
Fat Cells
Muscle
What cells take nutrients to use?
Liver Cells
Fat Cells
Muscle
Neurons
____ breaks down polysaccharides into di and tri-saccharides.
Amylase
____, ____, & ____ break down into monosaccharides?
Maltase
Sucrase
Lactase
____ stores glycogen and releases it as glucose for homeostasis?
Liver
What is the normal glucose level?
90mg/dL
____ is stored glucose?
Glycogen
____ is when glycogen is made?
Glycogenesis
____ is when glycogen is broken down into glucose?
Glycogenolysis
____ is when glucose is made?
Gluconeogenesis
____ is when glucose is broken down into pyruvate?
Glycolysis
What is the net gain of ATPs from 1 glucose?
36
4 reasons glucose is the preferred ATP substrate?
Easy to distribute (Small & hydrophilic)
Produces ATP without oxygen if necessary
Efficient storage as glycogen (Glycogen easily broken-down)
Not as important as other organic molecules
____ is when lipids are made from fatty acids in the nutrient pool?
Lipogenesis
____ is when lipids are broken down into fatty acids?
Lipolysis
____ can’t be made in the body and must be consumed?
Essential Fatty Acids
Why is fatty acid a better energy source than glucose?
Fat stores ATP Energy better
Why is glucose a better energy source than fatty acid?
Triglycerides are harder to breakdown and move around the body
____ adds an ammonium ions to the molecule to give it an amino group?
Amination
____ moves the amino group from an amino acid to another molecule?
Transamination
____ removes an ammonium ion from the molecule to breakdown amino acids?
Deamination
Water soluble compounds of ammonium ions and carbon dioxide make up what?
Urea
____ is the period of nutrient absorption following a meal? (lasts about 4 hours after each meal)
Absorptive state
ATP is made from ____ & ____ during the Absorptive State.
Glycolysis
Respiration
____ is the period of reliance on stored molecules?
lasts about 12 hours or more if starved
Postabsorptive state
ATP is made from ____ & ____ during the Postabsorptive State?
Lypolysis & Amino Acids
____ is the study of the flow of energy as it changes from one form to another.
Energetics
____ is the minimal resting energy expended by “existing.”
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
What is the average (BMR) Basal Metabolic Rate?
70 cal/hr
Reactions that generate ATP also generate ____, which “warms” cell?
Heat
____ is the homeostatic control of body temperature.
Thermoregulation
____ is the loss of infared heat.
Radiation
What percentage of heat is lost through radiation?
50%
____ is the loss of heat to air at the skin surface?
Convection
What percentage of heat is lost through Convection?
15%
____ is the loss of heat when it is absorbed by liquid?
Evaporation
____ is the constant loss of heat from alveoli and the skin?
Insensible perspiration
What percentage of that is lost through evaporation and Insensible perspiration?
20%
____ is the variable loss of heat from sweat?
Sensible Perspiration
____ is the loss of heat through physical contact with a surface?
Conduction
____ is activated when the body temperature is too high?
Heat-loss Center
____ is activated when the body temperature is too low?
Heat-gain Center
4 responses coordinated by the heat-loss center?
Behavior Change to increase heat loss
Vasodilation of skin blood vessels to increase radiation & convection
Sweat gland activation to increase evaporation
Respiratory center is stimulated to increase evaporation
4 responses coordinated by the heat-gain center?
Hormones are released to increase metabolism (generating heat)
Energy is sent to muscles to increase contractions (shivering)
Constriction of skin blood vessels to decrease radiation & convection
Heat is conducted between the veins & nearby arteries to preserve heat
4 types of Intercellular Communication?
Direct Communication
Paracrine Communication
Endocrine Communication
Synaptic Communication
Hormones made from “Amino Acids” are ____.
Amino Acids Derivative
Hormones made from pro hormone “peptides” are ____.
Peptide Derivative
Hormones made from “lipids” are ____.
Lipid Derivative
The ____ system coordinates & regulates activities of other cells to maintain homeostasis by making & releasing hormones or paracrine factor chemical messages.
Endocrine System
The Endocrine System regulates by ____ feedback mechanisms.
Negative Feedback
____ produce hormones but do not have a primary function. (Not considered main endocrine organs)
Secondary Organs
____ is located in the brain and regulates fluid glance, muscle contraction, and the pituitary gland.
Hypothalamus
____ is in the throat and regulates metabolism and calcium levels?
Thyroid Gland
____ is behind the thyroid in the throat and regulates calcium levels.
Parathyroid Gland
____ is located in the pancreas and regulates glucose uptake and glucose use.
Pancreas islets
_____, _____, & ____ are other primary endocrine organs?
Pituitary Gland
Adrenal Glands
Pineal Gland
What does a hormone bind to if it can’t enter a cell?
Surface Receptors
What is the first messenger?
Hormone
____ is attached to the receptor and is stimulated by the hormone to influence the second messenger?
G protein
____ is the molecule in the cell that is stimulated by the G protein to influence cell activity?
Second Messenger
____ is a hormone that can enter the cell, has receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus, and regulates transcription.
Steroid Hormone
____ is a hormone that can enter the cell, has receptors in the nucleus & mitochondria, and regulates transcription and ATP production.
Thyroid Hormone
____ is 1% of the pancreas and secretes hormones?
Endocrine Pancreas
____ is 99% of the pancreas and secretes digestion fluids?
Exocrine Pancreas
____ are clusters of endocrine cells surrounded by exocrine cells?
Pancreatic Islets
4 cell types found in Pancreatic Islets?
Alpha
Beta
Delta
Gamma
____ cells produce glucagon?
Alpha
____ raises blood glucose levels by increasing the rates of glycogen breakdown and the “release” of glucose by the liver?
Glucagon
____ cells produce insulin?
Beta
____ tells cells to take up and use glucose and tells liver & skeletal muscles to increase glycogenesis?
Insulin
If blood glucose levels are too high, ____ is produced.
Insulin
How do cells respond to insulin?
Glucose uptake Increased use of glucose to produce ATP Glycogenesis Increased amino acid absorption and protein synthesis Increased triglyceride synthesis
If blood glucose levels are too low, ____ is produced.
Glucagon
How do cells respond to glucagon?
Glycogenolysis
Lipid Catabolism
Gluconeogenesis
____ is an endocrine disorder characterized by excessively high blood glucose levels.
Diabetes Mellitus
____ is an abnormally high blood glucose level.
Hyperglycemia
How is glucose regulation disrupted in type 1 diabetes (insulin dependent)
Inadequate Insulin Production
Must receive exogenous insulin daily
Only 5-10% of all diabetes cases
Often develops in childhood
How is glucose regulation disrupted in type 2 diabetes. (non insulin dependent)
Normal insulin levels but target ells do not respond properly (insulin resistant)
Associated with obesity
Can be treated with diet, exercise, & drugs
All the chemical reactions in a cell needed to maintain functions for homeostasis are called what?
Cellular Metabolism
ATP has how many phosphates?
3
What occurs on the inner membrane of the mitochondria?
Oxidative Phosphorylation
____ takes glucose and uses it for energy.
Neural Tissue
The products of Glycolysis are ____ & ____.
Carbon Dioxide & NADH
How many ATPs are produced from one glucose?
36
____ removes and adds the amino group from/to a molecule.
Transamination
____ are organic molecules used in metabolism as a last resort.
Proteins
____ removes heat by touching a surface.
Conduction
____ are hormones made from fatty acids.
Steroid hormones
During receptor activation, the second messenger is ____ or ____.
cAMP or Calcium ions
Which diabetes is unable to produce the hormone insulin.
Type 1
Why is glucose the preferred substrate for ATP production.
Small & hydrophilic
Not needed for structure
Easy to store & breakdown
Oxygen is not needed
____ is the formation of glycogen.
Glycogenesis
____ is the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate.
Glycolysis
____ is the breakdown of glycogen.
Glycogenolysis
____ is the formation of glucose.
Gluconeogenesis
When blood glucose levels are too high, _____ cells secrete the hormone ____.
Beta
Insulin
When blood glucose levels are too low, ____ cells secrete the hormone ____.
Alpha
Glucagon