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1
Q

4 systems of history of human knowledge

A

metaphysical, philosophy, physiology, experimental psychology

2
Q

Explain metaphysical systems

A

supernatural
non scientific
animism- belief that non living things have life-like qualities (not scientific)
mythology and religion- behavior based on Gods/goddess (not scientific)
astrology- info based on planets (horoscope)(a little scientific)

3
Q

what is animism

A

belief that non living things have life-like qualities (not scientific)

4
Q

Explain philosophy

A
more scientific than metaphysical
asks the questions 
plato- importance of nature
aristotle- importance of nurture 
used to be more speculation, now more experimental 
dacarte- one of 1st empiricism
5
Q

Explain physiology

A

answers the questions
study how things function in the body (biology)
gather data, test hypothesis
Galvani- biologist studied frogs

6
Q

Explain Experimental psychology

A

schools of thought (ways of thinking)
founded in Germany by Wundt
study consciousness

7
Q

What two sciences is psychology based on?

A

philosophy and physiology

8
Q

What are the 4 cannons of science?

A

determinism, empiricism, parsimony, testability

9
Q

explain determinism (example)

A

universe is orderly
cause and effect
everything happens for a reason
Key is: is attitude going to predict behavior?
Illusory correlation (we perceive correlation between things but there’s actually no relationship) (ex. Lucky jersey)
**False conditioning of random behaviors = superstitions
Ex. Skinner’s (behaviorist) superstitions conditioning, pigeon experiment, operant conditioning (rewards/ punishment)

10
Q

what is Illusory correlation

A

we perceive correlation between things but there’s actually no relationship (ex. if you wash your car, it is going to rain) superstition

11
Q

explain Empiricism (example)

A

observe behavior

Ex. the phrase talk is cheap, go out and do ti

12
Q

explain parsimony

A

something simple/ easily explained

boxology- organized info, but its not simple. it has a lot of boxes

13
Q

explain testability

A

we test hypotheses not theories
theories lead to hypotheses
falsifiability

14
Q

define theory (example)

A

statement about the relationship between 2 things

Ex. relationship between marriage and happiness

15
Q

define hypothesis (example)

A

testable prediction

Ex. married people are happier than single people

16
Q

define operational definitions (example)

A

concept defined in terms of how its measured
more concrete
Ex. Define Love, Operational definition= the number of times a couple says “i love you” in one day

17
Q

define conceptual definitions (example)

A

more dictionary definition
cant really be measured
Ex. Define Love, Conceptual definition= deep affection and fondness of someone

18
Q

ways of knowing

A

intuition- emotional reasoning, not scientific
tenacity- determined, accept information as true if we hear it repeated (dont swallow gum)
reason and logic- not scientific
authority- not scientific
observation- scientific, mostly indirect (empiricism)

19
Q

goals of behavioral research

A

describe behavior
understand behavior
predicting behavior
solve applied problems

20
Q

Occam’s Razor & Lloyd Morgan’s Canon – pp.16-17

A

xxx

21
Q

difference between law, theory, and hypothesis

A

a law is a UNIVERSAL statement of the nature of things that allows reliable predictions of future events (comprehensive)
a theory is a GENERAL statement about the relationship between 2 or more variables (boundary conditions and equifinality)
a hypothesis is a testable prediction

22
Q

what makes a theory good?

A

simple and useful

23
Q

boundary conditions

A

times when they don’t apply (ex. frustration leads to aggression)

24
Q

Equifinality

A

human behavior usually has multiple determinants (ex. depression)

25
Q

approaches to hypothesis testing

A
  1. validation- most common, gather evidence that confirms hypothesis (positive test bias)
  2. falsification- gathers evidence that disconfirms hypothesis
  3. qualification- identify boundary conditions
26
Q

positive test bias

A

tendency to confirm rather than disconfirm

27
Q

behavioral confirmation

A

tendency to search for info that confirms our preconceptions

28
Q

inductive techniques of generating a hypothesis

A

reasoning from specific to general
observational (systematic empiricism)
Ex. experiment, case study, paradoxical incidents, serendipity
Paradoxical: puzzling behavior, doesn’t really make sense, draws more general conclusions
Serendipity: good luck/fortune. Lead you to more general conclusion
Skinner: behavioral psychologist did research on animals and studied behavior, Partial Reinforcement effect- study behavior and study continual reinforcement
hypothesis to a theory

29
Q

deductive techniques of generating a hypothesis

A

Reasoning from general to specific
Reasoning by analogy (ex. McGuire’s attitude inoculation) (comparison of people, places, things, events)
McGuire social psychologist who studied attitudes.
Attitude inoculation- pulls something biological and connects it to attitude. If exposed to small weaker argument, and later exposed to big argument
Accounting for conflicting results
Example: Theory to a hypothesis

30
Q

IRB institutional review board

A

college human subject committee
at least 5 members
varying background
at least one member not affiliated with institution

31
Q

Risk benefit ratio

A

Subjective evaluation of the costs to the individual/ society vs. costs of not conducting the research
is it worth it?

32
Q

minimal risk vs risk (example)

A

Minimal Risk: risk not above daily activity (ex. Walking to class, driving)
At Risk: potential of injury above that involved in daily activity (ex. Skydiving, driving blindfolded)

33
Q

Human Guidelines:

A

Informed consent (willingness to participate)
Confidentiality
Freedom to withdraw
Protection from harm (physical and psychological)
Deception
Debriefing

34
Q

Fudging data:

A

(least bad) manipulate results to make it look better

35
Q

Forging data:

A

(worse) completely make up data

36
Q

Types of Measurement:

A

Behavioral
Physiological
Self-report
Converging Measures

37
Q

measurement scales

A

nominal, ordinal, interval & ratio

38
Q

nominal

A

Arbitrary # assignment, numbers simply differentiates between objects
No limit
Weakest level
Ex. Baseball uniform numbers

39
Q

ordinal

A

Assign numbers to objects but the numbers also have meaningful order
Number indicated placement, rank, or order
Behaviors or individuals on some dimension
Can’t quantify differences between categories
Stronger level
Ex. Place finished in race: 1st, 2nd, 3rd

40
Q

interval

A

Number’s make order (like ordinal) but there also equal intervals between categories
Difference represent equal increments (intervals)
Not a true zero
Stronger level
Ex. Temperature

41
Q

ratio

A
Differences are meaningful (like interval) plus ratios are meaningful 
Provides the most info
Ordering of scores
Equal intervals
True zero
Physical attributes of objects
Ex. Weight
42
Q

categorical versus continuous variables

A

categorical- values that function as labels rather than numbers
ex: gender, race
continuous- numeric value such as 1,2,3
ex: BP, HR, height

43
Q

internal validity

A

confident x caused y
covariation- related variables
temporal sequence- directionality
eliminate confounds- can control confound systematically changes with independent variables
random assignment- within the study, everyone has an equal chance of being assigned

44
Q

external validity

A

generalizability
can i apply findings to a larger population?
two forms: to people and to situation
random sample- everyone at sdsu has an equal change of being picked

45
Q

reliability

A

consistency or repeatability

46
Q

observed score = true score + measurement error

A

90 = 95 + sick

47
Q

causes of measurement error

A
state of subject;
stable characteristics of subject; 
situational factors; 
characteristics of measure; 
mistakes recording responses
48
Q

interrrater reliability

A

2 researchers observing/ recording behavior
calculate- number of times 2 observers agree/ number of oppurtunities to agree x 100
need atleast 85%
data at least interval - correlation
need atleast .70

49
Q

test- retest reliabilty

A

at least .70

ex: IQ test today is the same in 1 month

50
Q

how to increase reliability?

A

instructions; train observers

51
Q

descriptive statistics

A

used to summarize or describe a set of observation

ex: frequency distribution, graphs

52
Q

central tendency

A

representatice number that characterizes the middleness of an entire data set
ex: mean, median, mode

53
Q

dispersion (variability)

A

degree to which the scores are clustered or spread in distribution
ex: range, variance, sd

54
Q

total variance = systematic variance and error variance

A

systematic variance/total variance = effect size (sm, med, lg)

55
Q

inferential

A

used to interpret or draw frequencies about a set of observation
ex: chi- square, correlation, t- test

56
Q

The intuition that machines (e.g., computers or cars) have temperaments or desires reflects _____ thinking.

A

Answer: Animistic

57
Q

Phenomena such as the illusory correlation and superstitious conditioning are consistent with the basic idea behind _____.

A

Answer: Determinism

58
Q

The principle of ____ refers to the idea that the same behavior is often produced by many different causes.

A

Answer: Equifinality

59
Q

Induction refers to reasoning _______.

A

Answer: From the specific to the general

60
Q

Studies that provide good information about causal relations between variables are high in _____.

A

Answer: Internal Validity