Saggital Plane
Divides vertically
Medial vs. lateral
Flexion/extension around a mediolateral/coronal/frontal axis
Transverse/Horizontal Plane
Divides horizontally
Superior vs inferior
Rotation around a vertical/superioinferior axis
Frontal/Coronal Plane
Divides vertically
Anterior vs posterior
Ab/adduction around an anterioposterior/saggital axis
Cranial Cavity
Formed by cranial bones, contains brain
Vertebral Cavity
Formed by vertebrae; contains spinal cord and beginning of spinal nerves
Thoracic Cavity
Contains pleural cavity, pericardial cavity, and mediastinum
Pleural Cavity
Potential space between pleural layers that surround the lungs
Pericardial Cavity
Potential space between layers of pericardium that surround the heart
Mediastinum
Central portion of thoracic cavity between lungs
First rib –> diaphragm
Sternum –> vertebral column
What is contained within the mediastinum?
Heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, several large blood vessels
Abdominal Cavity:
Contains stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine and part of the large intestine
Serous membrane of the abdominal cavity:
Peritoneum
Pelvic Cavity:
Contains urinary bladder, portions of the large intestine, internal reproductive organs.
Serous membrane of the pericardial cavity
Pericardium
Serous membrane of the pleural cavity
Pleura
The abdominal quadrants
Right upper, left upper, right lower, left lower
Midsaggital and transverse lines through umbilicus
The abdominal regions
Right hypochondriac, Epigastric, Left hypochondriac
Right lumbar, Umbilical, Left Lumbar
Right inguinal, Hypogastric, Left inguinal
Radiography
Xray
Single barrage of xrays sent through body
Good for imaging dense objects like bone
MRI
Magnetic resonance imaging
Body exposed to high-energy magnetic field.
Resulting proton arrangement read by computer
Good for imaging soft tissue but not bone.
Best for differentiating normal vs abnormal tissue
Computed Tomography (CT/CAT) Scan
Computer assisted xray
Arc of xrays creates image of transverse segment
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan
Substance that emits positrons is injected and the resultant gamma rays read
Shows physiology not just anatomy.
Chemical element
Cannot be split into a simpler substance by ordinary means
How many elements are there?
118 (92 on Earth)
Major elements in the body
Oxygen (65% of body mass)
Carbon (18.5%)
Hydroden (9.5%)
Nitrogen (3.2%)
Oxygen: significance in body
Part of water and many organic molecules
Used to generate ATP
Carbon: significance in body
Forms backbone chains/rings of all organic molecules
Hydrogen: significance in body
Constituent of water and most organic molecules
When ionized makes fluids more acidic
Nitrogen: significance in body
Component of all proteins and nucleic acids
Atom:
Smallest unit of matter than retains the properties and characteristics of the element
Atomic number
The number of protons in the nucleus
Mass Number
Sum of protons and neutrons
Isotopes
Atoms of an element that have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons
Same atomic #, different mass #
Half-life
The time it takes for half of the radioactive atoms in an isotope to decay into a more stable form
Half life of C-14: 5730 years
Atomic Mass
Average mass of all the naturally occurring isotopes, measured in daltons
Ion
Positively or negatively charged atom
Molecule
When two or more atoms share electrons
Compound
Joined atoms of two of more different elements
Free Radical
Atom or group of atom with an unpaired electron in its outer shell
Horizontal row in the periodic table
Period
# of electron shells
Designated with Roman Numerals (I, II, III etc)
Vertical row in the periodic table
Group. # of electrons Similar but not identical properties Equally reactive Numbered 1-7
Ionic Bonds
Formed with one atom donates electrons to another
The resulting positive/negative charges pull them together
Example: NaCl
Cation
Positively charged ion.
Electron donor
Anion
Negatively charged ion
Electron recipient
Covalent Bonds
When atoms share electrons
The more electrons shared, the stronger the bond
Single Covalent Bond
One electron shared
Example H2, or H-H
Double Covalent Bond
O2, or O=O
Polar Covalent Bond
Electrons not shared equally
Hydrogen Bond
Polar covalent bond involving Hydrogen Weakly negative (δ-) attracts (δ+) neighbour
Weak – can’t create molecules but can create surface tension of water
Exergonic Reactions
Release more energy than they use
Endergonic Reactions
Use more energy than they release
Catalysts
Decrease the activation energy required, thereby speeding up the reaction.
Unchanged by reaction
ie. Enzymes
Oxidation
Loss of an electron
Reduction
Gain of an electron
Potential Energy
The energy stored by matter due to its position
Chemical Energy
A form of potential energy contained within chemical bonds
Kinetic Energy
Energy associated with matter in motion
Energy
The capacity to do work
Activation Energy
Collision energy required to break chemical bonds of reactants
Anabolic reactions are usually
Endergonic
Catabolic reactions are usually
Exergonic
Inorganic compounds
Usually contain H
Usually don’t contain C
Structurally simple
Include H2O, many salts, acids, bases
Inorganic compounds that contain C include:
CO2
HCO3-
H2CO3
How much of people is inorganic
55-60% H2O plus another 1-2% other inorganic material
Hydrolysis
Addition of water in a catabolic reaction (ie digestion)
Dehydration synthesis reaction
Removal of water in an anabolic reaction (ie protein synthesis)
Water’s polarity is awesome because:
- it makes an excellent solvent for ionic compounds
- it makes it sticky
- allows it to resist temperature changes
Mixture
Blend without bonds
Solution
Solutes small, remain evenly dispersed. Solution transparent
Colloid
Solutes large enough to refract light. Solution opaque or translucent
Suspension
Solutes will eventually separate and settle
Dissociation
When inorganic acids, bases or salts dissolve in water and separate into ions surrounded by water molecules
Acids
Dissociate into one or more H+ ions plus anions
Bases
Dissociate into one or more OH- plus cations
Salts
Dissociate into cations and anions that aren’t H+ or OH-
Electrolytes
Salts which are important for carrying electrical signals, especially in muscles and nerves
What happens when acids and bases react with each other?
They make salts
pH
Measure of acidity/alkalinity
1 (most acidic) to 14 (most basic)
7=neutral
Buffer Systems
A weak acid and the salt of that acid, which acts as a weak base.
Regulate pH homeostasis
Three major buffer systems in the body
Protein Buffer System
Phosphate Buffer System
Carbonic Acid-Bicarbonate buffer system
Protein Buffer System
Most abundant buffer system in ICF and plasma Carboxyl group (-COOH) acts as acid; amino group (NH2) acts as base
Includes hemoglobin buffering of CO2/H+
Phosphate Buffer System
Important regulator in cytosol; also in urine and ECF Dihydrogen phosphate (acid) and monohydrogen phosphate (base)
Carbonic Acid and Bicarbonate buffer system
ICF and ECF
If too acidic bicarbonate (HCO3-) combines with H+ to create carbonic acid (H2CO3)
If too basic carbonic acid dissociates into H+ and HCO3-.
Carbonic acid can also dissociate into H2O and CO2, which is then exhaled.
Organic Compounds
Always contain carbon
Usually contain hydrogen
Held together by covalent bonds
38-43% of the body
Composed of carbon skeletons + functional group
Lipids
18-25% body mass
Less oxygen –> fewer covalent bonds –> hydrophobic
Monomer
Smallest building blocks of proteins
Isomer
Same molecular formula but different structure
Polymer
Larger molecules made by monomers covalently bonded together
Macromolecules
large molecules made up of combinations of smaller molecules
Fatty Acid
Simplest lipid
Caroboxyl group + hydrocarbon tail
Used to synthesize hydrocarbons and phospholipids
Saturated Fatty Acid
Only single covalent bond between the C’s in hydrocarbon tail
Unsaturated Fatty Acid
At least one double bond between carbons in hydrocarbon tail – kinky!
Triglycerides
Most plentiful lipid; greatest energy concentration
Glycerol (3-C) + three fatty acid tails
Fat
Triglyceride solid at room temperature
Oil
Triglyceride liquid at room temperature
Phospholipids
Glycerol (3-C) backbone, two fatty acid tails, plus one phosphate group.
Phosphate group becomes hydrophilic head
Fatty acid tails: hydrophobic tails
Steroids
Lipids with four carbon rings and hydroxyl (-OH) group
Cholesterol, some hormones, Vitamin D, bile salts
Carbohydrates
2-3% body mass
Mostly energy
CHO, 2:1 H:O (hence wet carbon)
Monosaccharides
glucose fructose galactose ribose deoxyribose
Disaccharides
sucrose = glucose + fructose lactose = glucose + galactose maltose = glucose + glucose
Polysaccharides
starch
cellulose
Proteins
large complex molecules
12-18% body mass
made up of amino acids joined by covalent peptide bonds (formed via dehydration synthesis)
Amino acids
Protein monomers
Hydrogen + amino + carboxyl + side chain (R)
Peptide
4-9 amino acids
Polypeptide
10-20K amino acids
Functions of proteins
- structure
- regulation
- contraction
- immunity
- transport
- catalysts
Primary protein structure
Amino acid sequence
Secondary protein structure
Beta sheet or alpha helix
Formed by neighbouring amino acids connecting by hydrogen bonds
Tertiary protein structure
3D polypeptide chain
Quaternary protein structure
Multiple polypeptide chains
Nucleic Acids
- Nitrogenous base
- Pentose Sugar
- Phosphate group
Nitrogenous Bases
Purines: adenine & guanine
Pyrimidine: cytosine & thymine(DNA)/uracil(RNA)
Enzyme
Protein that acts as a catalyst to reduce the activation energy required for a reaction; unchanged by reaction
Substrate
What the enzyme acts one
Apoenzyme
Protein portion of an enzyme
Cofactor
Nonprotein portion of an enzyme; usually a vitamin
Fluid component of people
2/3 ICF
1/3 ECF
- of that 80% is interstitial fluid
- 20% plasma
Parathyroid Hormone
Produced by principal cells
Main function: increases bone resorption (osteoclasts activity) to increase serum Ca+ levels.
Also slows Ca+ and Mg loss by kidneys and promotes formation of calcitriol
Calcitriol
Active form of Vitamin D
Increases rate of Ca+, Mg+ and K+ absorption by GI tract
Calcitonin
Produced by thyroid gland (parafollicular cells)
Inhibits osteoclasts activity to decrease levels of serum Ca+
Rigor Mortis
Cellular membranes become leaky at death.
Ca+ leaks out of sarcoplasmic reticulum
Tight junctions
We like strands if transmembrane proteins.
Prevent leaking of substances between cells and out of organs.
Stomach, intestine, bladder.
Adherens Junctions
Contain plaque (dense layers of protein inside plasma membrane) attached to microfilament (like actin)
Catherine span from opposite membrane and attach into plaques.
May form adhesion belts
Help epithelial cells resist separation during contractile activity (Intestine)
Cadherins
Transmembrane glycoproteins connecting membranes in adherens junctions and desmesomes.
Connect into plaques
Adhesion belts
In adherence junctions
Bands of microfilament that circle entire cell
Desmesomes
Spot weld junctions.
Cadherins span between membranes, attach into plaques.
Plaques connect into keratin-containing intermediate filaments.
Prevent separation of cells under tension, contraction.
Cardiac cells, epidermis
Hemidesmosomes
Like desmosomes but links cell to basement membrane not another cell.
Integrin (rather than cadherin) transmembrane protein.
Intermediate filaments contain keratin.
Connects to laminin in basement membrane.
Gap junctions
Little fluid filled tunnels called connexons (made from proteins called connexins) which allow ions and small molecules to pass between cells.
Allow communication, waste removal in avascular tissue
Nervous system, GI, heart, uterus, eye
Connexons
Communicating tunnels in gap junctions
Connexins
Proteins which make up Connexons in gap junctions.
Four types of tissue
- Epithelial
- Connective
- Muscular
- Tissue
Epithelial tissue
Covers body surfaces and lines hollow organs, glands and ducts
Allows bod to interact with internal and external environment.
Connective Tissue
Protects and supports the body and its organs
Binds organs together, stores every reserves, provides immunity.
Epithelial vs connective tissue
Epithelial: tightly packed Little if any EC matrix Avascular (so usually adjacent to connective tissue) Usually surface late
Connective:
Lots of EC matrix
Highly vascular items
Normally not on surface.
Three major functions of epithelial tissue
- Selective barrier
- Secretory surface
- Protective surface.
Basement membrane
In epithelial tissue
Thin extra cellular layer which
- Epithelial attachment
- Surface for epithelial migration
- Restrict passage of large molecules
- Filter (kidneys)
Layers of basement membrane
- Basal lamina
- - secreted by epithelium
- - contains laminin (which Hemidesmosomes attach to) - Reticular lamina
Two types of epithelial tissue
- Covering/lining
2. Glandular/secretory.
Classification of epithelial tissue by layers
- Simple (secretion, absorption)
- Pseudostratified (may include goblet cells, or ciliated cells)
- Stratified. (Protection again wear and tear)
Epithelial tissue classification by shape
- Squamous.
- Cuboidal. May have microvilli
- Columnar. May have microvilli or ciliates.
- Transitional (squamous cuboidal). Stretchy areas like the bladder.
Simple squamous epithelium
Single layer of flat cells
Filtration, diffusion
Cardiovascular and lymphatic (endothelium) Serous membranes (mesothelium) Bowmans capsule
Simple cuboidal epithelium
Secretion and absorption
Surface of ovary, lens, retina, kidney tubules.
Secretory portion of some glands and ducts.
Non ciliated simple columnar epithelium
Contain microvilli, goblet cells
Secretion and absorption
Secrete stomach mucous
GI tract (stomach to anus). Gallbladder
Ciliated simple columnar
Single layer of columnar cells, usually with goblet cells
Cilia prevent foreign bodies from entering lungs, sweep eggs towards uterus.
Bronchioles. Fallopian tubes. Uterus. Paranasal sinus. Central canal.
Pseudostratified columnar.
Ciliated
- mucous secretion, sweeping trapped particles
- upper respirator tract
Nonciliated
- absorption and protection.
- lines glandular ducts, epididymis, male urethra
Stratified squamous
Apical and surface layers: squamous (quick turnover)
Deeper layers: cuboidal- columnar
Protection against water loss, abrasion, UV light, microbes.
Keratinized (superficial)
Nonkeratinized (wet layers, like tongue)
Stratified cuboidal epithelium
Rare
Protection, limited secretion and absorption
Adult apocrine ducts, esophageal glands, make uretha
Stratified columnar epithelium
Protectin and secretion
Urethra, some excretory ducts, conjunctiva, mucous membrane.
Transitional epithelium
Allows for distension and stretch. Urinary bladder, uterers
Merocrine glands
Secretions released via exocytosis.
Most excretory glands are merocrine
Salivary. Pancreas.
Apocrine glands
Accumulate secretory product at apocrine surface, then pinch off that portion.
Repair. Repeat.
Mammary gland.
Holocrine gland
Accumulates secretory product in cytosol. Cell ruptures and becomes secretory product. Cell sloughed off and replaced.
Sebaceous glands.
Anterior grey horn
Contains somatic motor nuclei
Posterior grey horn
Contains cell bodies and axons of interneurons, and of sensory neurons
Where are the sensory cell bodies located?
Posterior/dorsal root ganglion
Lateral grey horn
Only exists in thoracic and upper lumbar spinal cord.
Contain autonomic motor nuclei
Columns
Longitudinal arrangement of white matter in spinal cord. Contains tracts
Tracts
Bundles of axons in the CNS
Have common origin or destination.
Arranged in columns
Cervical enlargement
C4-T1
Nerves to and from the upper limb
Lumbar enlargement
T9-12
Nerves to and from lower limbs
Conus medullaris
Tapering of spinal cord just inferior to lumbar enlargement.
Ends at level of L1-2 IVD
Filum Terminale
Extension of pia mater arising from conus medullaris
Anchors spinal cord to coccyx
Denticulate ligaments
Extension of pia mater
Suspend spinal cord in the middle of its dural sheath
Cauda equina
Spinal nerve and spinal nerve roots which exit the vertebral column inferior to where they exit the spinal cord
L2-5, S1-5, coccygeal nerve
Descend on an angle alongside the filum terminale
Rima vestibule
space between vestibular folds
Vestibular folds
false vocal cords
Glottis
folds of mucous membrane (vestibular + vocal folds)
Vocal folds
true vocal cords
Cricoid cartilage
rings of hyaline cartilage that forms the inferior wall of the larynx
Landmark for tracheotomies
Cricoid cartilage
Arytenoid cartilage
Pair of triangular shaped cartilages on top of the cricoid cartilage
Corniculate cartilage
Little buds of cartilage on top of the arytenoid cartilage
Connective Tissue: Basic Elements
Extracellular matrix + cells
Usually not surface tissue Highly vascularized (usually)
Extracellular Matrix
In connective tissue
Composed of protein fibres and ground substance
Secreted by connective tissue cells; its structure determines much of the tissue’s qualities. In bone, it’s hard and inflexible; in cartilage it’s firm and pliable.
Ground Substance
In the extracellular matrix of connective tissue
The substance in between cells and fibres
Supports cells, binds them, stores water, provides a medium for exchange
Contains water +large organic materials
Types of protein fibres found in connective tissue
Collagen fibres
Elastic fibres
Reticular fibres
Collagen fibres
Protein fibre found in the extracellular matrix of connective tissue
Strong but flexible
Resists tension; more so when arranged in parallel bundles (ie dense regular connective tissue)
Most abundant protein in the body
collagen
Elastic fibres
Protein fibre found in the extracellular matrix of connective tissue
elastic (protein) + fibrillin (glycoprotein)
Skin, blood vessel walls, lung tissue
Reticular fibres
Protein fibre found in the extracellular matrix of connective tissue
Collagen protein arranged in bundles and coated with glycoprotein
Reticular connective tissue (stroma of soft organs); basement membrane
GAGs
ie glucosaminoglycans
polysacccharides found in the ground substance of connective tissue
Include: hylauronic acid chondroitin sulfate dermatan sulfate keratan sulfate
Adhesion proteins
In the ground substance of connective tissues
Link components of ground substance together
Most abundant adhesion protein
fibronectin
Cells found in connective tissue
Fibroblasts Macrophages Plasma cells Mast cells Adipocytes Leukocytes
Fibroblast
Makes extracellular matrix and collagen, which form structural framework of tissues
Macrophages
Phagocytic cell derived from a monocyte.
May be fixed or wandering
Plasma Cells
Cell that produces antibodies.
Develops from a B cell
Mast cell
A cell found in areolar connective tissue that releases histamine, a dilator of small blood vessels, during inflammation.
Adipocyte
Fat cell, derived from a fibroblast
Leukocytes
White blood cells (WBCs)
Cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. Include
neutrophils lymphocytes monocytes eiosinophils basophils
Types of Embryonic Connective tissue
Mesenchyme
Mucous Connective Tissue
Mesenchyme
A type of embryonic connective tissue
Forms almost every other kinds of connective tissue
Mucous Connective Tissue
Embryonic connective tissue
Found in umbilical cord
Types of mature connective tissue
Loose Dense Cartilage Bone tissue Liquid
Types of loose connective tissue
Areolar
Adipose
Reticular
Types of liquid connective tissue
Blood
Lymph
Areolar connective tissue
Loose connective tissue
Most widely distributed
“packing material” found around almost every structure
Semifluid ground
SubQ, papillary dermis, lamina propria
Adipose tissue
Loose connective tissue
Brown (darker, due to increased blood supply, mitochondria, widespread in fetuses and infants)
White. Found everywhere areolar connective tissue is.
Reticular connective tissue
Loose connective tissue
Form stroma on organs, binds smooth muscle cells, red bone marrow, reticular lamina of basement membrane
Types of Dense Connective Tissue
Dense regular
Dense irregular
Elastic connective
Dense regular connective tissue
Shiny and white
regularly arranged bundles of collagen fibres
Tensile strength against long axes
Tendons, most ligaments, aponeuroses.
Dense irregular connective tissue
Often arranged in sheets
Provides tensile strength in many directions
Fascia, periosteum, perichondrium, joint capsules, heart valves
Elastic Connective Tissue
One of the dense connective tissues
Predominantly elastic fibres with fibroblasts; yellowish
Allows stretch, recoil
Lung tissue, trachea, walls of elastic arteries, suspensory ligaments, true vocal chords
Types of Cartilage
Hyaline
Fibrocartilage
Elastic cartilage
Hyaline cartilage
Contains a resilient gel as ground substance
Bluish-white, shiny
Most abundant and weakest cartilage
Flexibility, smooth surface for movement
End of long bones, anterior ends of ribs, nose, parts of larynx, trachea, bronchi, fetal skeletan
Fibrocartilage
Lack perichondrium
Rigid; strongest cartilage
Supports and joins
Pubic symphysis, IVD, menisci, the portion of tendons that insert into cartilage
Elastic cartilage
Strength and elasticity; maintains shape
Epiglottis, auricle, eustachian tubes