RM - Features of science Flashcards

1
Q

Empirical

A

A method of gaining knowledge which relies on direct observation or testing, not hearsay or rational argument.

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2
Q

Falsifiability

A

The possibility that a statement or hypothesis can be proved wrong.

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3
Q

Paradigm

A

‘A shared set of assumptions about the subject matter of a discipline and the methods appropriate to its study’ (Kuhn, 1962).

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4
Q

What is the process of the inductive model of the scientific process?

A
  1. observations
  2. testable hypothesis
  3. conduct a study to test the hypothesis
  4. draw conclusions (and refine)
  5. propose theory
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5
Q

What is the process of the deductive model of the scientific process?

A
  1. observations
  2. propose theory
  3. testable hypothesis
  4. conduct a study to test the hypothesis (refine)
  5. draw conclusions
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6
Q

Scientific knowledge is based on what 5 key features?

The features of science

A
Empirical methods
Objectivity
Replicability
Theory construction
Hypothesis testing
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7
Q

Explain empirical methods as a feature of science

A

Information is gained through direct observation or experiment rather than from unfounded beliefs ro reasoned argument. (There have been times in human history when scientific evidence has come from reasoned argument, but scientists now look for empirically based facts.)

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8
Q

Why is important that empirical methods are used in scientific research?

A

Because people can make claims about anything (such as the truth of a theory, the benefits of a treatment or the taste of a hamburger), but the only way we know such things to be true us through direct testing, i.e. empirical evidence.

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9
Q

Explain objectivity as a feature of science

A

Empirical data should be objective (i.e. not affected by the expectations of the researcher). Systematic collection of data is at the heart of the scientific method.

In order to be more objective the ideal is to carefully control conditions in which research is conducted, i.e. in a laboratory. Such controlled environments are used for observational studies as well as experiments.

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10
Q

How can research be more objective?

A

In order to be more objective the ideal is to carefully control conditions in which research is conducted, i.e. in a laboratory. Such controlled environments are used for observational studies as well as experiments.

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11
Q

What is at the heart of the scientific method in terms of objectivity?

A

Systematic collection of data is at the heart of the scientific method.

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12
Q

Explain replicability as a feature of science

A

One way to demonstrate the validity of any observation, questionnaire or experiment is to repeat it. If the outcome is the same, this affirms the truth of the original results.

In order to achieve such replication it is important for scientists to record their procedures carefully so someone else can repeat them exactly and verify the original results.

This may sound like reliability but it is actually without validity. In order to test reliability we would test the same people in exactly the same way, but, for replication, psychologists usually test a different group of people and often use a slightly different task to see if similar behaviour is observed.

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13
Q

What is one way to demonstrate the validity of any observation, questionnaire or experiment?

A

Repeat it. f the outcome is the same, this affirms the truth of the original results.

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14
Q

What it is important to do to achieve replication?

A

In order to achieve such replication it is important for scientists to record their procedures carefully so someone else can repeat them exactly and verify the original results.

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15
Q

What is the difference between reliability and replicability?

A

In order to test reliability we would test the same people in exactly the same way, but, for replication, psychologists usually test a different group of people and often use a slightly different task to see if similar behaviour is observed.

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16
Q

Explain theory construction as a feature of science

A

Facts alone are meaningless. Explanations or theories must be constructed to make sense of the facts. A theory is a collection of general principles that explain observations and facts. Such theories then help us understand and predict the natural phenomena around us.

Scientists use both inductive and deductive methods, so sometimes theory comes before hypothesis testing and sometimes it comes after.

17
Q

Why must a theory be constructed?

A

Facts alone are meaningless. Explanations or theories must be constructed to make sense of the facts.

18
Q

What is a theory?

A

A theory is a collection of general principles that explain observations and facts.

19
Q

What do theories help us to do?

A

Help us understand and predict the natural phenomena around us.

20
Q

What two methods of theory construction/the scientific process do scientists use?

A

Both inductive and deductive methods, so sometimes theory comes before hypothesis testing and sometimes it comes after.

21
Q

In what method does theory construction come before hypothesis testing?

A

Deductive method.

22
Q

In what method does theory construction come after hypothesis testing?

A

Inductive method.

23
Q

Explain hypothesis testing as a feature of science

A

Theories are modified through the process of hypothesis testing. This is another essential characteristic of science where the validity of a theory is tested. A good theory must be able to generate testable expectations. These are stated in the form of a hypothesis (or hypotheses). If a scientist fails to find support for a hypothesis, then the theory requires modification.

Hypothesis testing as we know it only developed in the 20th century. Science as a method for discovering reliable knowledge and the process itself is constantly evolving and improving.

24
Q

Through what process are theories modified?

A

Hypothesis testing.

25
Q

What is an example of a characteristic of science where the validity of a theory is tested.

A

Hypothesis testing.

26
Q

A good theory must be able to do what?

A

Generate testable expectations.

27
Q

How are testable expectations of a good theory stated?

A

In the form of a hypothesis (or hypotheses).

28
Q

What does it mean for a theory if a scientist fails to find support for a hypothesis?

A

Then the theory requires modification.

29
Q

When did hypothesis testing as we know it develop?

A

20th century

30
Q

What is happening to the science as a method for discovering reliable knowledge and the process itself?

A

It is constantly evolving and improving.

31
Q

What did Karl Popper argue?

A

That it was not possible to confirm a theory; it was only possible to disconfirm it.

32
Q

What did Kuhn propose?

A

That there are two main phases in science: normal science and a revolutionary shift.

33
Q

What is an example of a paradigm shift?

A

The revolution in our understanding of the universe due to the work of the Polish astronomer Copernicus in the 16th century. He overthrew the belief held for almost 2,000 years that the earth was the centre of the universe. Such changes are not as logical as Popper’s view of science might suggest. According to Kuhn, scientific progress is more like a religious conversion and is related to social factors (e.g. what other people are saying).