Radicals

Question 1

When was peterloo massacre and how many attended

Answer 1

1819 and approx 50-60,000

Question 2

How many were killed/injured at peterloo

Answer 2

18 were killed

Est. 700 were injured

Question 3

When was pentridge rising in and how many marched

Answer 3

1817 
300 working class men

Question 4

How did the government respond to pentridge

Answer 4

They made an example out of it 45 were tried for treason of whom 30 imprisoned and 3 leaders were hanged

Question 5

When was the LCS formed and At its peak how many members did LCS have

Answer 5

1792-93

3,000 members

Question 6

When was spa fields and how many people attended

Answer 6

1816

10,000

Question 7

What did the suspension of habeas corpus do and when was it passed

Answer 7

1794-95

Suspended it twice in 1794 to allow the government to round up potential threats

Question 8

What did the treason and seditious meetings act (1795) do

Answer 8

It extended the idea of treason to include ideas that were written or spoken
And seditious meeting didn’t allow public meeting of people over 50

Question 9

What did the 1797 stamp tax do

Answer 9

Put a tax on printed media which meant newspapers were too expensive

Question 10

What did the newspaper regulation act do

Answer 10

Forced newspapers to register with the aim of limiting their ability to publish critical articles

Question 11

What did the use of agent provocateurs do

Answer 11

Turned the public against the government as they felt it was disreputable

Question 12

what was the impact of the american revolution on Britain

Answer 12

proved political reform was obtainable, and that principles of democracy could be established in a written constitution . American government based on consent (no hereditary passage of titles), without restriction of political rights (universal suffrage, no property qualification for office). This made more question the ‘injustice’ of paying taxes without having the vote, and rule by a monarch / aristocratic-dominated parliament

Question 13

what was the initial impact of the french revolution on GB

Answer 13

inspired radicals in Britain that change was possible. it showed reform could achieved by mounting popular. in some thsi stimulated enthusiasm for reform

Question 14

why did this change as the french revolution progressed

Answer 14

the bloodshed of the terror from the 1793 guillotining the aristocracy and the king/Queen allowed those that opposed reform to portray change as dangerous

Question 15

who was Edmund Burke

Answer 15

regarded as defender of constitutional settlement of 1688- he originally aligned himself with the old whigs. was more conservative that new whigs

Question 16

what were Burke’s central ideas

Answer 16

published “reflections on the revolution in France”

• Revolutionary change always accompanied by violence
• Government derives authority from custom and tradition, not consent of governed
• Liberty (of the ‘swinish multitude’ ) needs to be restrained
• Britain’s government is ‘stable and wise’ - the ideal combination of monarchy, aristocracy and the House of Commons

Question 17

who was thomas paine

Answer 17

famous early radical spent 13 years in america from 1774- he urged the American colonies to seek independence.

Question 18

how did Paine respond to Burke’s defense of the constitution

Answer 18

he published “rights of man” this became the principal text inspiring political radicals in Britain from the 1790s onwards

Question 19

What was the impact of ‘The Rights of Man’?

Answer 19

The book sold cheaply and became a bestseller: 200,000 copies of Part II were sold within a year. No longer was political debate limited to the propertied classes – Paine had succeeded in questioning the legitimacy of GB’s political institutions.

Question 20

What was the LCS?

Answer 20

An organisation set up to campaign for political reform. The idea for Corresponding Societies came from Paine. The first opened in Sheffield in 1792, followed a month later by The LCS. Aim was to write to / link with, similar provincial societies.

Question 21

What changes did the LCS call for?

Answer 21

The LCS believed
• the people of GB were not adequately represented in Parliament;
• and pointed towards the ‘oppressive taxes, unjust laws, restrictions of liberty, and wasting the public money’.
• The LCS were actually quite moderate, limited aims.
• They emphasised their opposition to violence and anarchy.

Question 22

How successful were the LCS and others in calling for reform?

Answer 22

• Total membership peaked at over 3000 in 1795
• Societies became a feature of many unrepresented towns, such as Manchester, Leeds, and Edinburgh; skilled craftsmen in particular joined
• The Societies held weekly meetings & printed pamphlets
• In 1793, 6000 members of the public signed a petition to say they supported the resolutions of the LCS; the organisation could attract several thousand for a demonstration and plans were underway to organise a convention in Edinburgh.

Question 23

How did the Government respond?

Answer 23

The initial response came from the propertied classes who formed loyalist associations (with government’s backing); they used anti-radical propaganda to counter the threat of the LCS by focusing upon anti-French sentiment and fear of radical change

Question 24

which laws were passed to counter this threat posed by the LCS?

Answer 24

• the proclamation against seditious writing and publications(1792)
• The Suspension of Habeas Corpus (1794-1795)
• The Treason Trials (1794)
• ‘The Two Acts’
• The Treasonable Practices Act and the Seditious Meeting Act (1795)
• The Combination Act (1799)

Question 25

What was the effect of this legislation?

Answer 25

By end of 1795 radicalism was silenced. The new powers of Pitt’s government rarely used and fewer than 200 were convicted under them in 1790s. Key to success was they enabled authorities to intimidate radicals – arresting leaders, silencing propaganda and frightening many away.

Other factor was return of war with French. War broke out 1793 and led to restored patriotism in Britain, under which radicals increasingly viewed as traitors. Nonetheless, although radicalism quietened down, it did not disappear. Many of its supporters and ideas endured, ready to re-emerge before the end of the war against France.

Question 26

What were the chief complaints to have emerged by 1815?

Answer 26

• Unemployment arising from the Napoleonic Wars in 1815; also thousands of ex-soldiers and sailors now looking for work
• New machines in factories replacing skilled workers
• Fluctuating food prices meant many people struggling to cope
• Taxes introduced to pay for costs of war which increased poverty levels
• The Corn Laws kept the price of wheat (bread) high

As the threat of invasion lessened, radicals were no longer held back by the charge of being un-patriotic

Question 27

What problems did GB face after defeat of Napoleon in 1815

Answer 27

Wars started 1793 - national debt vastly increased, industries (textiles, coal, engineering) had to adjust to loss of war orders, and many of GB’s trading partners’ economies were depressed. Unemployment was increasing as 300,000 troops returned home.

Question 28

How did government attempt reduce national debt?

Answer 28

National debt grew to £861 million – instead of continuing to use income tax, the government introduced indirect taxation on everyday items such as sugar, tea, candles, beer and tobacco. This raised the price and had a disproportionate impact on the poor.

Question 29

Why were the Corn Laws introduced?

Answer 29

Landowners demanded a ban on imports of foreign wheat arguing Britain needed to be self-sufficient in case of another war.
The Corn Laws proved controversial – critics argued they protected profits of landowners whilst impoverishing lowest class.

Question 30

Who was William Cobbett?

Answer 30

Influential radical, who became an MP later (in 1832 for Oldham) –travelled around county to learn about working conditions. Cobbett was a strong critic of the government – he felt they abused their privileged position and could not justify the inequality in GB.

Question 31

Describe Cobbett’s early career

Answer 31

Cobbett published the Weekly Political Register in 1802. Initially newspaper / pamphlet supported the Tory government, but Cobbett embraced reformist views after imprisonment for a campaign against flogging in the army. The WPS sold for 2d, read by thousands.

Question 32

How did Cobbett’s influence grow?

Answer 32

The language used was adopted by wider radical movement. A particular feature of Cobbett’s writing was his use of labels to attack those within the government and governing class who he felt were responsible for suffering of the people. His decision to publish leading articles from the Political Register in pamphlet form, thus escaping the newspaper stamp duty. Cobbett’s influence grew further in winter of 1816-17. It was a harsh winter, following a poor harvest, and bread prices rose higher than ever before. He gave a simple solution to those suffering: parliamentary reform

Question 33

What were political / radical clubs?

Answer 33

Many of Cobbett’s readers attended meetings in pubs, chapels and cottages: the radical club, where these people gathered to read articles and pamphlets, and to discuss ideas; this was the second form of agitation in these years.
The best known of these was Hampden Club, founded in 1812 by John Cartwright.

Question 34

Describe the influence of John Cartwright in the early 1800s

Answer 34

Radical agitation in the early 1800s began in the press. The ‘father’ of newspaper agitation was Major John Cartwright (see LCS). Cartwright remained supporter of parliamentary reform and continued to establish links between reformers. He used newspapers to convert readers; the most well-known was William Cobbett.

Question 35

Who joined the Hampden Clubs?

Answer 35

Most popular in industrial heartlands of Lancs, Yorks, the Midlands & central Scotland; membership was limited by fears of punishment for formal association with a ‘revolutionary’ society. Others within the middle-class were reluctant to join because they feared that such organisations could encourage a revolution.

Question 36

What were their aims?

Answer 36

• To win over ‘respectable’ support for reform.
• Achieve ‘manhood suffrage’
• Abolition of the Corn Laws

Question 37

Describe their activities

Answer 37

• Producing pamphlets financed by their weekly subscriptions
• In 1816/17 a campaign to collect signatures for a petition to parliament was organised. Signatures collected at branch meetings and representatives were selected to attend a central meeting (Convention) in London, 1817.
• The clubs had to be careful of anti-sedition legislation. Meetings were public and presented as a gathering of deputies intending to discuss constitutional reform.
• Nevertheless, they faced significant challenges from government, including infiltration by spies, and targeting of their leaders by local constables.
• In 1817, several figures in Lancashire’s Hampden Clubs (Manchester) were arrested and imprisoned for several months before being released without charge.

Question 38

What was the ‘Platform’?

Answer 38

The third form of radical agitation was the platform (or public meeting) – built around the right to petition Parliament and providing an opportunity to demonstrate popular support for reform and its highly organised nature. Closely associated with Henry ‘Orator’ Hunt

Question 39

Who was Henry Hunt?

Answer 39

Born into prosperity in 1773– in 1810 he shared a prison cell with Cobbett and upon his release campaigned for manhood suffrage. By 1815 he became the most popular radical leader. In 1816 he spoke at Spa Fields, London, and in 1819, was the main speaker at St Peter’s Field (Peterloo); opposed 1832 Reform Act because no vote to working men.

Question 40

Explain Hunt’s core beliefs

Answer 40

Hunt’s fiery speeches made him a hero to the working classes. He had no intention of winning the support of ‘gentleman reformers’ and instead looked to huge outdoor meetings to rouse the masses. He did not want any riots, only by being well organised, orderly and peaceful could the masses demonstrate their newfound power and discipline. Method known as the ‘mass platform’ – massive demos, collect thousands of signatures for petitions to Parliament = irresistible pressure on Parliament. The largest meetings were held in cities like Manchester, Birmingham and London.

Question 41

How poor harvests of 1816 lead to increase in radical activity?

Answer 41

1816 severe weather resulted in poor harvests leading to desperate food shortages in winter of 1816/17. This exacerbated the economic hardship caused by the end of the Napoleonic Wars and the impact of Corn Laws on grain prices.

Question 42

Why did Spa Fields prove controversial?

Answer 42

Before Hunt arrived a small section of crowd rioted, breaking into a gun shop, seizing weapons and marching towards the Tower of London. The riots lasted for several hours and there was looting, but by nightfall peace was restored. However, the majority of the people were peaceful, even singing national anthem. When Hunt arrived, they heard him call for lower taxes and the reform of Parliament.

Question 43

Was Hunt at least partly responsible for the violence?

Answer 43

Hunt spoke from the window of a public house, wearing his white top hat. he made no appeal to violence, but did urge people to sign a petition which contained the words ‘before physical force was applied’. The authorities argued this was a deliberate incitement to violence. There is significant evidence that the meeting was expected to be troublesome – Cobbett was invited but refused to attend.

Question 44

What were the effects of Spa Fields?

Answer 44

The petitions were not delivered until 1817, over 700 of them in total, some signed by thousands. Although a few radicals in Parliament and some members of Whigs were sympathetic, most MPs were afraid of this demonstration of popular feeling and certainly did not wish to agree to significant reforms such as manhood suffrage. The petitions were ignored or dismissed.

Question 45

How did the authorities react in 1817?

Answer 45

After the violence 300 arrests were made. One rioter executed and four organisers charged with High Treason. Case dropped after it was revealed that key witness for prosecution, John Castle, was working for the authorities as a spy.

The government pushed three measures through Parliament, known as the ‘Gag’ Acts:
1. Suspension of Habeas Corpus for six months
2. The Seditious Meetings Act – restricted public meetings of more than 50 people
3. Incitement to Mutiny was made a hanging offence.
The legislation was effective. Cobbett fled to US, Hampden Clubs broke up and public meetings ceased. Radicals were forced to operate underground, knowing that government used spies/informers to infiltrate their organisations.

Question 46

Why did the uprising not succeed?

Answer 46

The group was infiltrated by ‘William Oliver’, one of the most famous of the government’s operatives appointed by Lord Sidmouth. ‘Oliver’ alerted the authorities to ensure troops were waiting to arrest the marchers in Nottingham.

Question 47

Why did Pentrich prove so controversial?

Answer 47

At the trial it transpired that ‘Oliver’ had convinced the men to act, leading them to believe they were part of a nationwide rebellion. Their view was publicised by the Leeds Mercury ( middle-class newspaper), whose proprietor, Edward Baines, pursued investigation which exposed ‘Oliver’ to the public. ‘Oliver’ promptly disappeared and could not be called as a witness, although ‘provocation’ could not be used as a defence. All those on trial were convicted: Three leaders were hanged and 14 others were transported.

Question 48

What effects of these harsh sentences?

Answer 48

Evidence of government’s involvement led to a public outcry, which was supported by Whig politicians who were keen to seize an opportunity to attack Tories.

Question 49

Who were the Blanketeers?

Answer 49

Unemployed workers, mainly weavers from Lancashire, organised a demo in Manchester, March 1817. Plan march to London to present petition to Prince Regent demanding relief of distress caused by state of textile industry, the restoration of Habeas Corpus and reform of parliament. Connected to the riots at Spa Fields, the severe reaction of the authorities to these, the formal rejection by parliament of proposals for reform and to the extremely harsh economic conditions of the time. Several local figures conceived the idea for the march and took it to William Benbow, a non-conformist preacher from Manchester who was a leading figure in the local Hampden Club.

Question 50

What happened when the crowds gathered at pentridge?

Answer 50

On 10th March 5000 marchers gathered in Manchester with a crowd of 25,000 to cheer them. The marchers were all carrying a blanket in which to sleep, and also to signify that they were textile workers. Plan to depart in groups of 10, each carrying a petition with 20 signatures to avoid accusations of illegal mass assembly. The gathering was broken up and 27 people were arrested. Several hundred men who had already set off were pursued by the cavalry and attacked. Some were wounded, several arrested and many dropped out. Only one marcher made it as far as London.

Question 51

What were the effects of the actions taken by the government?

Answer 51

Many marchers displayed sabre wounds and a Stockport resident was shot dead. Manchester magistrates responded by revealing evidence of a conspiracy claiming they had uncovered a plot with as many as 50,000 people expected to take part in this plot. There were a further wave of arrests - prisoners taken to London and held without trial for months before release.
The absence of any sign of an uprising on the day for which it had been supposedly planned was used as evidence of the success of the authorities’ actions. The ‘Gag’ Acts that were introduced after Spa Fields were upheld, and the Seditious Meetings Act sailed through Parliament before the end of the month. In Manchester itself, no more public meetings were held, and the Hampden Clubs disappeared.

Question 52

Describe economic conditions of 1818

Answer 52

In 1818, there was slight improvement in trade & fall in unemployment. Habeas Corpus was restored and the ban on large meetings was lifted.

Question 53

Why meet at St Peter’s Field, Manchester, in 1819?

Answer 53

In 1819, four huge meetings were planned as a demonstration of radical, working class strength. The last one was scheduled to take place in August at St Peter’s Fields in Manchester, and Henry Hunt was to address the crowd.

Question 54

What preparations by both sides prior to the meeting?

Answer 54

Local authorities grew concerned at prospect of large number of radicals gathering. Radical clubs and political unions from across Lancashire were busily preparing for the meetingThe yeomanry were called up and professional troops were on stand-by.

Question 55

What happened during the meeting?

Answer 55

There were over 60,000 people, many with banners proclaiming slogans such as ‘Liberty and Fraternity’, ‘Reform or Death’ and ‘Votes for All’. As Hunt spoke, authorities became anxious and the order was given to arrest Hunt. As yeomanry tried to reach him, the crowd closed ranks to stop them. Some of the yeomanry used their swords to clear a path. Eleven people were killed and over 400 were injured in the ensuing stampede.

Question 56

Who was to blame?

Answer 56

Some said the yeomanry were drunk - they were certainly inexperienced. Outcry in the press, and amongst critics of the government in Parliament. In many parts of the country riots broke out in support of the ‘martyrs’. Although privately feeling the magistrates had over-reacted, the officially defended magistrates, and to imprison Hunt for two years.

Question 57

What did the Six Acts represent?

Answer 57

Despite an improving economic situation and evidence of growing calm, a majority of MPs accepted the government’s argument that public meetings were enabling demagogues to acquire undue influence via intimidating and inflammatory speeches. To many the Six Acts were a suppression of peaceful protest – petitioning meetings were to be restricted to the inhabitants of a single parish, protest literature was to be curtailed and the powers of the authorities were greatly extended. It could be argued that the Acts made it impossible to protest legally. Yet in other ways their importance can be seen as exaggerated. The first does not seem particularly extreme, even by modern standards. The second and third were only introduced as temporary measures and neither was renewed. The last three were really just attempts to resolve defects in existing legislation.

Question 58

What were the Six Acts, 1819?

Answer 58

1. An Act forbidding unauthorised military training.
2. An Act giving magistrates emergency powers to search houses for weapons.
3. An Act to prevent all but the smallest public meetings.
4. An Act to prevent evasions of newspaper stamp duty.
5. An Act to enable magistrates to seize/destroy seditious / blasphemous publications.
6. An Act to prevent delays by the accused in blasphemy and treason trials.