What is race?
Physical/biological
What is ethnicity?
Distinctive groups based on commonalities of culture, language, religion, etc.
What is nationality?
Refers to legal citizenship of a particular nation-state
What does it mean by race being socially constructed?
They are dynamic and subject to change
What does it mean by crime being a social construct?
There is nothing that is innately deviant or criminal about any act
What is symbolic interactionism ?
Rests on the assumption that our reality is socially constructed
How are the meanings of symbols ascribed?
They are created through social interaction
What were the results from a study showing the same CV to different employees but different race were listed?
Italians – 12% more applications
Indigenous – 35% more applications
Middle Eastern – 64% more applications
Chinese – 68% more applications
What happened to the label of delinquent over time?
Over time the label of delinquent becomes internalised
What did Merton distinguish in the self-fulfilling prophecy?
The perceptions of in-groups and out-groups
What does the self-fulfilling prophecy ascribe?
Negative motivations and labels to members of out-groups
What is primary deviance?
Essentially normal, experimental boundary testing
What is secondary deviance?
Resulting from internalised pejorative labels applied by agents of social control
Which deviance is more important in determining of futures offence?
Secondary deviance
What does stigmatization refer to?
The process by which offenders are publicly identified and degraded
What did Howard Beck highlight in his criminological research?
The role of moral entrepreneurs in identifying and criminalising deviancy
How many Australians are born overseas?
26% of all Australians
What is the statistical relationship between immigrants and offending?
Immigrants in general have the lowest rates of offending
First-generation immigrants (parents born overseas) offend more than their parents but still less than average
2nd+ generation Australians generally have the highest rates of offending
Exceptions are immigrants and descendants from New Zealand, Lebanon, Vietnam, Turkey and Romania
What are the areas of life do immigrants experience disadvantage?
Higher than average unemployment
Lower earning/low status jobs
Lower levels of education
Reduced language competency
Residency in more affordable, higher-crime neighbourhoods
What is a prolific case study about the link between race and crime?
Sudanese Australians
What is the statistical quantity of Sudanese born Victorians & crime?
Small in overall terms but significant over-representation for a range of serious crimes
What cultural risk factors are associated with the break down of traditional gender roles and familial status?
Financial power and independence
Language capability
Child freedom and differential adaptation
What cultural risk factors are associated with conspicuous identification?
Media stereotyping
Discrimination & labeling
What did the British declare Australia as when first colonized?
Terra nullius
Who were the fighters representing the colonization of Australia?
Colonial mounted police forces
How were Indigenous Australians recruited into policing?
Indigenous troopers were recruited through coercion, kidnapping and voluntary enlistment
What were the cultures of resistance in Australia?
Continuum of antagonism, resistance and resentment between the state, particularly police, and Indigenous peoples
What did Weatherburn and Snowball suggest in terms of race and crime?
The need to address the root causes of offending
What is differential policing?
Differential policing refers to different policing strategies imposed on ethnic minorities
What is the difference between Indigenous Australians and non-Indigenous Australians in terms of policing interaction?
Indigenous Australians much more likely to be arrested rather than cautioned by police than non-Indigenous Australians
What are the three charges that characterize police-indigenous interactions?
Offensive language/behaviour
Resisting arrest/hindering police
Assault
What are the negative consequences of police-indigenous interaction?
The deaths of Mulrunji Doomadgee in police custody on Palm Island and teenager TJ Hickey in Redfern in 2004 which sparked major riots
How is the relationship between Indigenous Australians and other Australians being repaired?
The fostering of reconciliation between Indigenous and other Australians