Problem solving

Question 1

What is problem solving?

Answer 1

Generating route to a goal (e.g., electrical fault)

Question 2

What is decision making?

Answer 2

Evaluating alternative outcomes or making

choices (e.g., choose a treatment)

Question 3

What is reasoning?

Answer 3

Drawing further inferences from current

knowledge and beliefs (e.g., Buddhist monk)

Question 4

What is expertise and skill acquisition?

Answer 4

Knowledge as routine (e.g., becoming a doctor)

Question 5

What did Gilovitch (1981) prove by presenting a hypothetical international crisis to students?

Answer 5

Showed systematicity in analogy. Reminding people of Munich 1938 led to more endorsement of US intervention than if reminded of Vietnam.

Question 6

What is the Gestalt approach to problem solving?

Answer 6

Emphasized importance of changes in perspective, prior knowledge, and assumptions. Seeing problem in right way is essential for problem solving.

Question 7

What is functional fixity?

Answer 7

When we develop mental sets: tend to see things in a certain way, use certain solutions. And ultimately fail to notice novel uses of objects. e.g., Duncker’s (1945)
candle problem.

Question 8

Failing to notice easier solution in Luchin’s jug problem is an example of a…?

Answer 8

Mental set.

Question 9

In response to the largely descriptive Gestalt approach, Newell & Simon (1970) proposed problem solving as a…

Answer 9

Search through a problem space of possibilities, e.g. through chess moves.

Question 10

In Newell & Simon’s problem-solving theory, what is a state?

Answer 10

Specification of situation.

Question 11

In Newell & Simon’s problem-solving theory, what is a goal?

Answer 11

Goal: The desired state.

Question 12

In Newell & Simon’s problem-solving theory, what is an operator?

Answer 12

Operator: An action that changes one state into another.

Question 13

In Newell & Simon’s problem-solving theory, what is a constraint?

Answer 13

Restriction on what can be done.

Question 14

Can every operator be applied in every situation?

Answer 14

No

Question 15

What is a method?

Answer 15

A procedure for performing a search for a solution.

Question 16

When are heuristics used?

Answer 16

When an algorithm (guaranteed to produce an answer) cannot be found.

Question 17

Difference between A.I. and human intelligence may be?

Answer 17

Humans can find a novel problem and solve it. No one has succeed in doing this with AI, which can solve only well defined problems (e.g. chess).
Maybe because humans have a variety of heuristics.

Question 18

What are 3 general problem-solving methods?

Answer 18

1. Generate-test
2. Difference reduction
3. Means-ends analysis

Question 19

What is the generate-test method?

Answer 19

Randomly generate solution, then test it. E.g. combination lock with tumblers

Question 20

What is the difference reduction method?

Answer 20

Keep applying operators that will take you closer to goal. Find way of measuring distance to goal.

All you need to know is what your goal is and whether steps take you closer.

Question 21

What are the 4 steps of means-ends analysis?

Answer 21

1. Compare current state to goal state
   and identify differences
2. Select an operator to reduce the largest difference.
3. If operator cannot be applied set subgoal of creating preconditions for its application.
4. Return to (1) until goal is reached

e.g. Tower of Hanoi - first set subgoals, then final solution

Question 22

Three pieces of evidence that we do means-ends analysis?

Answer 22

1. Evidence from verbal protocols (Anderson, 1983) – People often spontaneously set subgoals. And they can tell you about them when problem-solving
2. Egan & Greeno (1974): a problem becomes more difficult with more subgoals.
   – Probability of error increased with the number of subgoals necessary.
3. Catrambone (1995): better performance in math problem solving when instructed to set subgoals.

Question 23

One piece of evidence that we don’t do means-ends analysis?

Answer 23

Patsenko & Altmann (2010) showed that people were not using detailed planning and setting subgoals in Tower of Hanoi.

Changing number of disks during task – by adding extra in saccades – did not change actions. People didn’t notice. So we’re probably using multiple methods - distance-reduction here, means-ends there.

Question 24

How do we use knowledge to cut down search – in a way that computers can’t?

Answer 24

By using knowledge. Computers don’t have this. Knowledge can eliminate problem-solving.

Question 25

What is transfer – positive and negative?

Answer 25

Transfer – the application of old knowledge to a new problem

Negative transfer: functional fixedness and
mental set

Positive transfer: using prior knowledge to help you solve a problem

Question 26

Analogies provide one form of ________.

Answer 26

Analogies provide one form of transfer.

Question 27

The convergence solution experiment of Gick and Hollyoak, 1980 demonstrated what?

Answer 27

We can form analogies on basis of structure – i.e. we can solve problems analogically.

Question 28

OO = KK or PS. What is this problem called and whihc animals can do it?

Answer 28

Relational match-to-sample. Chimps and pigeons if given lots of training.

Question 29

O is to o as S is to __. Which animals can do this?

Answer 29

None.

Question 30

Animals seem to pick up on ________ distinctions, rather than ________ reasoning –same vs different.

Answer 30

Animals seem to pick up on perceptual distinctions, rather than relational reasoning –same vs different.

Question 31

Ability to regard things as same or different, regardless of __________, may be uniquely ________ capability.

Answer 31

Ability to regard things as same or different, regardless of appearance, may be uniquely human capability.