define motivation
The will and desire that a person has to engage in a particular behaviour or perform a particular task
King and Lawley
the cognitive decision-making process through which goal-directed behavior is initiated, energized, directed and maintained.
• includes preferences for:
○ particular outcomes,
○ strength of effort (half-hearted or enthusiastic)
○ and persistence (in the face of problems and barriers).
Douglas McGregor (1960) Motivational Propositions
- Theory X- managers believe in giving orders, direct supervision, and in the motivating power of money.
- Theory Y managers believe in giving autonomy and responsibility, and in the motivating power of interesting jobs.
• Theory Y was a more accurate description of most people’s attitudes towork,Theory X demotivated people.
• non-financial rewards can be as powerful, if not more powerful motivators than money, as we also value ○ recognition, ○ jobs with a worthwhile purpose, ○ flexible working and ○ personal development.
define extreme job
a job that involves a working week of 60 hours or more, with high earnings, combined with additional performance pressures.
Characteristics of an extreme job
- physical presence in the office of at least ten hours a day;
- tight deadlines and fast working pace;
- unpredictable workflow;
- inordinate scope of responsibility;
- frequent travel;
- after-hours work events;
- availability to clients 24/7;
- responsibility for profit and loss;
- responsibility for mentoring and recruiting.
Define boreout
boredom, demotivation and lack of energy and enthusiasm caused by uninteresting, unchallenging and monotonous work.
Define gig economy
a system of employment in which freelance workers sell their skills and services, through online marketplaces, to employers on a project or task basis.
Advantages of Gig economy
- be free to innovate and
- be entrepreneurial, without having to navigate the organizational bureaucracy or deal with officepolitics.
- be independent, self-reliant
Disadvantages of Gig economy
- be lonely,
- financially insecure, and
- lead to a blurring of work and home lives – can trigger anxiety.
- do not have workplace benefits as permanentemployees,or
- little or no prospect of a progressive career
Three perspectives of motivation
- Goals
- What are the main motives for our behaviour? (content theory) - Decisions
- Why do we choose to pursue certain goals? - Influence
- How can we get you to work harder?
define drive
an innate, biological determinant of behaviour, activated by deprivation.
• Our behaviour is influenced by our biological equipment (oxygen, food, shelter etc.)
what are innate cognitive drives?
Curiosity = the need to explore, to play, to learn more
Sense-making = The need to understand the nature of the world around us
Order and meaning =The need for order, certainty, equity, consistency, predictability
Effectance or competency =The need to exert mastery and control over the world around us
Self-understanding = The need to know who and what we are
define motive
a socially acquired need activated by a desire for fulfilment.
• acquired through experience.
Difference between drives and motives
Drives
- Are innate
- Have a physiological basis
- Are activated by deprivation
- Are aimed at satiation
Motives
- Are learned
- Have a social basis
- Are activated by environment
- Are aimed at stimulation
define content theories
theories of motivation based on drives and need
-universalist
Define the emotional needs theory
claims that we are driven by four basic and innate (‘hardwired’) drives: (Nohria, Groysberg & lee)
- The drive to acquire = Obtain scarce goods, develop social status
- The drive to bond = Form connections with other individuals and groups
- The drive to comprehend = Satisfy our curiosity, master our environment
- The drive to defend = Protect against threats, promote justice
influences feeling of: involvement, energy and initiative, satisfaction, commitment, and intention to quit
Implications of emotional need theory
Acquire- reward system
• Differentiate good from average and poor performers
• Tie rewards clearly to performance
• Pay as well as your competitors
Bond- culture
• Foster mutual reliance and friendship among co-workers
• Value collaboration and teamwork
• Encourage sharing of best practice
Comprehend- job design
• Design jobs that have distinct and important roles in the organization
• Design jobs that are meaningful and foster a sense of contribution to the organization
Defend- performance management
• Increase the transparency of all processes
• Emphasize their fairness
• Build trust by being just and transparent in granting rewards, assignments, and other forms of recognition
What is Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy
- Self-actualization=
- need to develop our full potential - Freedom of inquiry and expression =
- a prerequisite for the satisfaction of other needs - Transcendence a spiritual =
- need, ‘to be at one with the universe’
a. Ignored by managers - Aesthetics =
- need for order and beauty
a. Ignored by managers - To know and to understand =
- need to gain and to systematize knowledge, curiosity - Esteem =
- need for strength, confidence, achievement, self-esteem, independence, and the respect of others - Affiliation =
- need for attachment, belongingness, affection, love, - Safety =
- need for security, comfort, and threat from the environment, shelter, - Biological =
- need for sunlight, sexual expression, food, water, rest, and oxygen – needs basic to our survival
define self-actualisation
the desire for personal fulfilment, to develop one’s potential, to become everything that one is capable of becoming.
- Maslow argues this is our ultimate goal, and
- freedom of inquiry and expression is a prerequisite for this.
Properties of Maslow’s hierarchy
- A need is not an effective motivator until those lower in the hierarchy are more or less satisfied.
○ have an innate desire to work our way up the hierarchy. - Lack of need satisfaction can affect mental health.
- The experience of self-actualization stimulates the desirefor more.
Define Process Theories
theories of motivation that focus on how we make choices with respect to goals.
-varies amongst individuals
Define Equity Theory
a process theory of motivation which argues that perception of unfairness leads to tension, which motivates the individual to resolve that unfairness.
- based on our perceptions of fair treatment.
- argues that, the more intense the perceived inequity, the higher the tension, and the stronger the motivation to act.
When is equity achieved?
ratios are equal
My rewards (minus my costs)/My efforts and contributions= Your rewards (minus your costs)/Your efforts and contributions
What are rewards?
tangible or intangible: • pay, • status symbols, • fringe benefits, • promotion prospects, • satisfaction, • job security.
Strategies for reducing inequity
- Alter your income
e. g.Persuade the manager to increase my pay - Adjust your inputs
e. g.I won’t work as hard as X - Alter the comparison person’s outcomes
e. g. Persuade the manager to cut X’s pay - Alter the comparison person’s inputs
e. g. Leave the difficult tasks to X - Compare with someone else
e. g. X gets the same as I get - Rationalise the inequity
e. g. X has worked here for much longer - Leave
e. g. Get another job
What are Equity Theory Issues?
• A number of quantitative and qualitative variables have to be considered when calculating an equity ratio.
○ depend on individual perception,
• Different people use different timescales when calculating fairness;
○ short-term calculations may be different from long-term implications.
- There are individual differences in tolerance levels,
- Overlooks the wider organizational context in two ways.
- The basis of our social comparisons
- Ignores context concerns the systemic inequities in capitalist economies.
Implications for Equity Theory in Practice
- Employees compare pay, even in organizations that insist on pay secrecy.
- Perceived inequity generates resentment, hence tension
- Comparisons are often subjective and imprecise
Define the Expectancy Theory
a process theory which argues that individual motivation depends on:
- the valence of outcomes,
- the expectancy that effort will lead to good performance,
- and the instrumentality of performance in producing valued outcomes
What three concepts is The Expectancy Theory based on?
○ Valence:
-the perceived value or preference that an individual has for a particular outcome, and can be positive, negative or neutral.
○ Instrumentality:
-the perceived probability that good performance will lead to valued rewards, and is measured on a scale from 0 (no chance) to 1 (certainty).
○ Expectancy:
-the perceived probability that effort will result in good performance, and is measured on a scale from 0 (no chance) to 1 (certainty).
Features of expectancy theory
- states that behaviour results from a conscious decision-making process based on expectations the individual has about the results of different behaviours leading to performance and to rewards.
- can explain individual differences in motivation and behaviour.
- measures the strength of the individual’s motivation to behave in particular ways.
- assumes that behaviour is rational, and that we are aware of our motives.
Management consequences of Expectancy Theory
- The link between effort and performance must be clear, but there is no point in offering rewards that are not valued.
- If employees are told to do one thing but rewarded for doing another, they will focus on behaviors that are rewarded and ignore other instructions.
- Money is only one of several extrinsic rewards; to be motivating it must be linked to performance and be seen as equitable.
- If different employees value different kinds of rewards, it may help to introduce a ‘cafeteria benefits’ scheme, offering a choice of fringe benefits.
- The value of different rewards may change with time and has to be monitored
define the goal-setting theory
a process theory of motivation which argues that work motivation is influenced by goal difficulty, goal specificity and knowledge of results
four propositions of goal theory
- Challenging goals lead to higher levels of performance than simple and unchallenging goals.
- Difficult goals are also called ‘stretch’ goals because they encourage us to improve.
- Specific goals lead to higher levels of performance than vague goals such as ‘do your best’.
- Goals should thus be SMART: specific, measurable, attainable, realistic and time-related.
- Participation in goal setting can improve performance by increasing commitment to those goals, but managerially assigned goals that are adequately explained and justified can also lead to high performance.
- Knowledge of results of past performance is necessary for effective goal achievement.
What is Taylor’s scientific Management Approach?
- Decide on the optimum degree of task fragmentation , breaking down a complex job into a sequence of simple steps.
- Decide the one best way to perform the work, through studies to discover the most effective method
- Train employees to carry out these simple fragmented tasks in the manner specified.
- Reward employees financially for meeting performance targets
define job enrichment
a technique for broadening the experience of work to enhance employee need satisfaction and to improve motivation and performance
define motivator factors
aspects of work which lead to high levels of satisfaction, motivation and performance, including achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, growth and the work itself
define hygiene factors
aspects of work which remove dissatisfaction, but do not contribute to motivation and performance, including pay, company policy, supervision, status, security and physical working conditions.
Advantages of task fragmentation
- employees do not need expensive and time-consuming training;
- repeating one small specialized task makes employees very proficient;
- unskilled work gets lower pay;
- and some of the problems of achieving controlled performance are simplified.
Disadvantages of task fragmentation
- repetitive work is very boring;
- the individual’s contribution to the organization is meaningless and insignificant;
- monotony leads to apathy, dissatisfaction and carelessness;
- and the employee does not develop skills that might lead to promotion
What is the two-factor theory of motivation? Herzberg
The factors which led to job satisfaction were different from those which led to job dissatisfaction.
1. motivator factors (aka job content factors) and 2. hygiene factors (aka organizational context factors)
What are the motivator and hygiene factors?
Motivator Factors (Job content)
- Achievement
- Advancement
- Growth
- Recognition
- Responsibility
- The work itself
Hygiene Factors (Organizational context)
- Pay
- Company policy
- Supervisory style
- Status
- Security
- Working conditions
define vertical loading factors
methods for enriching work and improving motivation, by removing controls, increasing accountability, and by providing feedback, new tasks, natural work units, special assignments and additional authority
-used for job enrichment
define intrinsic rewards
valued outcomes or benefits which come from the individual, such as feelings of satisfaction, competence, self-esteem and accomplishment
define extrinsic rewards
valued outcomes or benefits provided by others, such as promotion, pay increases, a bigger office desk, praise and recognition.