Introduction to anatomy and physiology
Anatomy: the study of the structure of the body
Physiology: the study of the function of the body parts
Pathology: the study of the disease of the body•Basic reference systems–Directions, planes, cavities, structural units
Terms of Direction
Anterior: Posterior: Distal: Proximal: Dorsal: Ventral: Superior: Inferior: Lateral: Medial: Rostral: Caudal: Bilateral: Unilateral: Ipsilateral: Contralateral: Parietal: Visceral: Axial: Intermediate:
Anterior:
Anterior: In front of, front
Posterior:
Posterior: After, behind, following, toward the rear
Distal:
Distal: Away from, farther from the origin
Proximal:
Proximal: Near, closer to the origin
Dorsal:
Dorsal: Near the upper surface, toward the back
Ventral:
Ventral: Toward the bottom, toward the belly
Superior:
Superior: Above, over
Inferior:
Inferior: Below, under
Lateral:
Lateral: Toward the side, away from the mid-line
Medial:
Medial: Toward the mid-line, middle, away from the side
Rostral:
Rostral: Toward the front
Caudal:
Caudal: Toward the back, toward the tail
Bilateral:
Bilateral: Involving both sides of the body
Unilateral:
Unilateral: Involving one side of the body
Ipsilateral:
Ipsilateral: On the same side of the body
Contralateral:
Contralateral: On opposite sides of the body
Parietal:
Parietal: Relating to a body cavity wall
Visceral:
Visceral: Relating to organs within body cavities
Axial:
Axial: Around a central axis
Intermediate:
Intermediate: Between two structures
Planes
Lateral Plane or Sagittal Plane:
Median or Midsagittal Plane:
Parasagittal Plane:
Frontal Plane or Coronal Plane:
Transverse Plane:
Lateral Plane or Sagittal Plane:
Lateral Plane or Sagittal Plane: Imagine a vertical plane that runs through your body from front to back or back to front. This plane divides the body into right and left regions.
Median or Midsagittal Plane:
Median or Midsagittal Plane: Sagittal plane that divides the body into equal right and left regions.
Parasagittal Plane:
Parasagittal Plane: Sagittal plane that divides the body into unequal right and left regions.
Frontal Plane or Coronal Plane:
Frontal Plane or Coronal Plane: Imagine a vertical plane that runs through the center of your body from side to side. This plane divides the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) regions.
Transverse Plane:
Transverse Plane: Imagine a horizontal plane that runs through the midsection of your body. This plane divides the body into upper (superior) and lower (inferior) regions.
Dorsal cavity:
Dorsal cavity: Bones of the cranial portion of the skull and vertebral column, toward the posterior (dorsal) side of the body
Cranial cavity:
Cranial cavity: Contains the brain
Spinal cavity:
Spinal cavity: Contains the spinal cord, which is an extension of the brain
Ventral cavity:
Ventral cavity: Anterior portion of the torso; divided by the diaphragm into the thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity
Thoracic cavity:
Thoracic cavity: The chest; contains the trachea, bronchi, lungs, esophagus, heart and great blood vessels, thymus gland, lymph nodes, and nerve,. as well as the following smaller cavities:
Pleural cavities:
Pleural cavities: Surround each lung
Pericardial cavity:
Pericardial cavity: Contains the heart. The pleural cavities flank the pericardial cavity.
Abdominopelvic cavity:
Abdominopelvic cavity: An imaginary line running across the hipbones and dividing the body into the abdominal and pelvic cavities:
Abdominal cavity:
Abdominal cavity: Contains the stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, small intestines, and most of the large intestine
Pelvic cavity:
Pelvic cavity: Contains the end of the large intestine, rectum, urinary bladder, and internal reproductive organs
Structural Units
- Cells
- Tissues
- Organs
- Integumentary system
- Skeletal system
- Muscular system
- Nervous system
- Endocrine system
- Cardiovascular system
- Lymphatic/immune system
- Respiratory system
- Digestive system
- Urinary system
- Reproductive system
Cells
Cells–Smallest units of life–Perform all activities necessary to maintain life•Metabolism, assimilation, digestion, excretion, reproduction
Tissues
Tissues –Made up of different types of cells
–Epithelial: covers and protects
–Connective: binds and supports other tissues
–Muscle: movement
–Nervous: connects sensory structures to motor structures
Organs
Organs–Cells integrated into tissues
–Serve a common function–Examples•Liver•Stomach•System is a group of organs
Integumentary system
Integumentary system
–Organs •Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, sebaceous glands
–Functions•Protection, insulation, regulation of water and temperature
Skeletal system
Skeletal system
–Organs•Bones, cartilage, membranous structures
–Functions•Movement, blood production, fat and mineral storage, protection
Muscular system
Muscular system
–Organs•Muscles, fasciae, tendon sheaths, and bursae
–Functions•Movement, pushing food and blood, contracting heart
Nervous system
Nervous system
–Organs•Brain, spinal cord, cranial and peripheral nerves, sensory and motor structures
–Function•Control and regulation, interpreting stimuli
Endocrine system
Endocrine system
–Organs•Endocrine glands
–Function•Works with nervous system to regulate chemical aspects of the body
Cardiovascular system
Cardiovascular system
–Organs•Heart, arteries, veins, capillaries
–Function •Transport substances to and from cells
Lymphatic/immune system
Lymphatic/immune system
–Organs•Lymph nodes, lymph vessels, thymus gland, spleen
–Functions•Drains tissues of excess fluids, transports fats, develops immunities
Respiratory system
Respiratory system
–Organs•Nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
–Function•O2 > CO2 exchange in the blood
Digestive system
Digestive system
–Organs•Alimentary canal: mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum and anus•Associated glands: salivary, liver, pancreas
–Functions•Convert food into absorbable substances, eliminates wastes
Urinary system
Urinary system
–Organs•Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
–Functions•Chemical regulation of blood•Formation and elimination of urine•Maintenance of homeostasis
Reproductive system
Reproductive system
–Organs
•Women: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina
•Men: testes, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, penis, urethra
–Functions•Maintains sexual characteristics and perpetuates the species
Homeostasis
Homeostasis (cont’d.)•Maintenance of the body’s internal environment–Within varying narrow limits•Negative feedback loop•Examples–Blood sugar levels–Body temperature
Body monitors deviations in homeostasis–Negative feedback loop•Responses that revise disturbances to body’s condition–Positive feedback•Increase in function in response to stimulus•Uterine contractions during labor•Organ systems help control internal environment
Blood glucose
Blood glucose–Levels rise dramatically after meal–Cells take in glucose–Pancreas secretes insulin•Moves glucose into liver for storage as glycogen–Between meals, pancreas secretes glucagon•Turns glycogen into glucose and returns it to blood–Thus, glucose levels remain nearly constant
Body temperature
Body temperature–Hypothalamus detects increase in body temperature–Causes sweating•Water evaporates and body is cooled–Blood vessels dilate to bring blood near body surface
Atoms–
Atoms–Smallest particles of elements–Maintain all characteristics of element–Nucleus contains protons and neutrons–Electrons orbit nucleus in shells
Element:
atoms contain same numbers of protons and electrons
Compound:
Compound: contains two or more elements
Isotope:
Isotope: number of neutrons varies
Periodic table of the elements–
Periodic table of the elements–Arranges elements by increasing atomic number
Orbital:
area where electron is found
Energy levels:
Energy levels: grouping of orbitals–Represented as concentric circles surrounding nucleus
Ionic:
Ionic: one atom gains and one atom loses electrons
Covalent:
Covalent: atoms share electrons
Hydrogen:
Hydrogen: weak bonds, hold water molecules together
Bonds and Energy
Bonds and Energy (cont’d.)
•Ionic: one atom gains and one atom loses electrons
•Covalent: atoms share electrons•
Hydrogen: weak bonds, hold water molecules together
- Electron donors vs. acceptors vs. carriers
- Bonds are energy containing
Common Substances in Living Systems
- Water
- Carbon Dioxide
- Molecular Oxygen
- Ammonia
- Mineral Salts
- Carbohydrates
- Lipids
- Proteins
- Nucleic Acids
- Adenosine Triphosphate
Water
Water •Most abundant substance in cells •Universal solvent •Transport of materials •Absorbs and reduces heat• Protects body structures
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon Dioxide•Waste product of cellular respiration•Used in photosynthesis to produce usable energy sources•Must be removed quickly from cells•Carbon in molecules comes from carbon dioxide gas
Molecular Oxygen•
Molecular Oxygen•Formed from covalent bond of two oxygen atoms•Required by all organisms that breathe air•Necessary to convert food into ATP•Level in atmosphere is 21%
Ammonia
Ammonia•By-product of amino acid breakdown–Amino acids are building blocks of proteins–Amino acids contain nitrogen•Converted to urea in the liver
Mineral Salts
Mineral Salts•Composed of small ions•Calcium: muscle contraction and strong bones•Phosphate: ATP synthesis•Sodium, potassium, and chloride are necessary for muscle contraction and nervous transmission
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates•1:2:1 ratio of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen•Five- and six-carbon simple sugars are smallest –Five-carbon: deoxyribose and ribose–Six-carbon: glucose and fructose•Functions: energy storage and cell structure
Lipids
Lipids•Insoluble in water•95% of fats in body are triacylglycerols•Saturated fat: fatty acids have single covalent bonds•Unsaturated fat: fatty acids have one or more double covalent bonds•Functions: energy, insulation, and protection
Proteins
Proteins•Contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur•Amino acids are building blocks of proteins•Functions: energy and structure•Enzymes: protein catalysts for chemical reactions
Proteins (cont’d.)
Proteins (cont’d.)•Structure–Primary: amino acid sequence–Secondary: determined by hydrogen bonds–Tertiary: folding caused by interactions within peptide bonds and sulfur atoms–Quaternary: determined by spatial relationships between units
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic Acids•Deoxyribonucleic acid: genetic material of the cell•Ribonucleic acid: protein synthesis–Messenger RNA–Transfer RNA•Structure–DNA: double helical chain–RNA: single chain
Nucleic Acids (cont’d.)
Nucleic Acids (cont’d.)•Nucleic acids are made up of chains of nucleotides–Nucleotide: nitrogen base, sugar, and phosphate group–Nitrogen bases: purines (two) and pyrimidines (three)
Adenosine Triphosphate
Adenosine Triphosphate•Fuel for cell function and maintenance•Molecule consists of sugar, adenine, and three phosphates–Energy is stored in the second and third phosphates•Breakdown of glucose provides energy to make ATP
Movement of Materials into and out of Cells
Plasma membrane is selectively permeable–Only selected materials can enter and exit–This is because of chemical structure–Water can enter and exit with ease
Diffusion
Diffusion•Movement of molecules from area of high concentration to low concentration•Brownian movement: random collision of diffusing molecules•Accelerated by increased temperature•O2–CO2 exchange is an example of diffusion
Osmosis
Osmosis•Movement of water through semipermeable membrane from high concentration to low concentration–Isotonic solution: salt concentration is the same outside the cell as inside–Hypotonic solution: salt concentration inside cell is higher than outside cell–Hypertonic solution: salt concentration is higher outside the cell than inside
Osmosis (cont’d.)
Osmosis (cont’d.)•Active transport–Used by cells to obtain sugars, amino acids, larger proteins, and fats–Needs energy in the form of ATP–Molecules move from areas of low concentration to areas of high concentration
pH
pH (cont’d.)•Negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration•Acids: pH values below 7•Bases: pH values above 7•Buffers: help maintain pH levels
cell structure introduction
The cell is the basic unit of biological organization•Basic composition–Protoplasm–Cell membrane–Organelles•Eukaryotic vs. prokaryotic
History of the Cell Theory
History of the Cell Theory•Proposed in 1830s by Schleiden and Schwann•Modern cell theory–Cells are the smallest complete living things–All organisms are composed of one or more cells–Cells arise only from other cells–All existing cells are descendants of the first cells
Anatomy of a Typical Eukaryotic Cell
- The Cell Membrane
- Cytoplasm of the Cell
- The Nucleus•
- The Mitochondria
- Lysosomes
- Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Ribosomes
- Centrioles
- Cilia and Flagella
- Plastids of Plant Cells
The Cell Membrane
The Cell Membrane•Double phospholipid layer with embedded proteins•Membrane transport: selectively permeable membrane–Osmosis–Protein channels–Active transport–Fluid mosaic model
Cytoplasm of the Cell
Cytoplasm of the Cell•Mostly water with chemical compounds in solution or colloid–Solution vs. colloid•Individual vs. clumped atoms or ions distributed in medium•Polar compounds go into solution•Nonpolar compounds go into colloidal suspension
The Nucleus
The Nucleus•Control center of the cell•Nuclear membrane has pores to allow the passage of substances•Chromatin genetic material inside nucleoplasm•Nucleolus: site of ribosome formation
The Mitochondria
The Mitochondria•Powerhouses of the cell•Cristae: inner folds where cellular respiration occurs•Energy requirements of cell determine cristae number
Lysosomes
Lysosomes•Digestive enzyme packages•Function–Digest stored food–Maintenance and repair of organelles–Suicide agents for old or weak cells
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic Reticulum•System of membranes that makes up channels•Connects with outer nuclear and cell membranes•Cisternae: sac like or channel like cavities
Endoplasmic Reticulum (cont’d.)
Endoplasmic Reticulum (cont’d.)•Rough ER–For protein synthesis–Attached ribosomes•Smooth ER–Fat transport–Sex hormone synthesis
Endoplasmic Reticulum (cont’d.)
Endoplasmic Reticulum (cont’d.)•Golgi apparatus–Collection of flat saclike cisternae–Concentration and collection of cellular compounds–Storage warehouses of the cell–Carbohydrate synthesis site
Ribosomes
Ribosomes•Distributed throughout cytoplasm•Attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum•No membrane covering•Site of protein synthesis
Ribosomes (cont’d.)
Ribosomes (cont’d.)•Protein functions–Structure, enzymes or catalysts, immune response•DNA contains the code for a particular protein–DNA found in nucleus
Ribosomes (cont’d.)
Ribosomes (cont’d.)•Transcription–Messenger RNA copies DNA code and leaves nucleus•Translation–Transfer RNA picks up amino acids–Ribosomes link amino acids together
Centrioles
Centrioles•Centrosome: two centrioles at right angles to each other–Composed of nine sets of triplet fibers•Form spindle fibers during cell division•Guide duplicated chromosomes to daughter cells
Cilia and Flagella
Cilia and Flagella•Hairlike protrusions from cell membrane•Nine double fibrils around two single central fibrils•Cilia move materials across cell surface•Flagellum propels cell through a medium
Plastids of Plant Cells
Plastids of Plant Cells•Chloroplasts–Most common plastid–Photosynthesis: conversion of light into chemical energy–Granum•Made of thylakoids•Connected by lamella•Chromoplasts: carotenoid pigments•Leucoplasts: store food
Plastids of Plant Cells (cont’d.)
Plastids of Plant Cells (cont’d.)•Cell membrane surrounded by cell wall •Cell wall composed of cellulose–Cellulose•Dietary fiber•Synthesized by Golgi bodies•Animal cells do not have cell walls
Introduction to Cellular Metabolism
Introduction to Cellular Metabolism•Metabolism: total cellular chemical changes–Anabolism: process of building up–Catabolism: process of breaking down•Calorie: measure of energy contained in food •ATP: energy source available to the cell
Glycolysis
Glycolysis•Breakdown of glucose•Anaerobic or aerobic process•Final outcome–2 pyruvic acid molecules, 2 ATP molecules (anaerobic), 8 ATP molecules (aerobic)
The Krebs Citric Acid Cycle
The Krebs Citric Acid Cycle•Pyruvic Acid > Acetic Acid > Acetyl-CoA•Acetyl-CoA enters Krebs cycle in mitochondria•Final outcome–6 CO2, 8 NADH2, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP (GTP)
The Electron Transport (Transfer) System
The Electron Transport (Transfer) System•Series of reduction/oxidation reactions•Requires O2•Electron carriers•Number of ATP molecules dependent on electron carrier•Water is a waste product
Summary of ATP Production•
Summary of ATP Production•During glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and electron transport•Glycolysis: 8 ATP (aerobic)•Krebs cycle and electron transport–28 ATP + 2 GTP or–30 ATP•1 glucose molecule yields 38 ATP
Anaerobic Respiration
Fermentation
Anaerobic Production of ATP by Muscles
Fermentation
Fermentation•Yeast breaks down glucose anaerobically•Pyruvic acid is broken down by decarboxylase–Forms carbon dioxide and acetaldehyde•Final products: 2 ATP, CO2,ethyl alcohol
Anaerobic Production of ATP by Muscles
11Anaerobic Production of ATP by Muscles•Pyruvic acid converted to lactic acid–Accumulation of lactic acid causes fatigue in muscles–When oxygen is supplied, lactic acid turns back into pyruvic acid•2 ATP produced per glucose molecule
Production of ATP from General Food Compounds
Production of ATP from General Food Compounds (cont’d.)•Carbohydrates fit into cellular furnace at same level as glucose–Can be stored in liver or as fat•Fats digested into fatty acids and glycerol–Glycerol enters at PGA stage of glycolysis–Fatty acids enter Krebs citric acid cycle
Production of ATP from General Food Compounds (cont’d.)
Production of ATP from General Food Compounds (cont’d.)•Proteins digested into amino acids–Enter into Krebs cycle at different stages•Dependent on chemical structure
Introduction to Cellular Reproduction (cont’d.)
Introduction to Cellular Reproduction (cont’d.)•Process of cell duplication•Mitosis: duplication of genetic material•Cytokinesis: duplication of organelles•Meiosis: reduction division only in gonads
The History of the Discovery of DNA
The History of the Discovery of DNA•Friedrich Miescher, 1869: first discovery•P.A. Levene, 1920s: composition•Rosalind Franklin: helical structure•Watson and Crick: three-dimensional structure
The Anatomy of the DNA Molecule
The Anatomy of the DNA Molecule•Double helical chain of nucleotides–Phosphate group–Five-carbon sugars (deoxyribose)–Nitrogen-containing base•Pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine)•Purines (adenine and guanine)–Pyrimidines pair with purines–Chains held together by hydrogen bonds
The Anatomy of the DNA Molecule (cont’d.)
The Anatomy of the DNA Molecule (cont’d.)•Gene: sequence of base pairs that codes for polypeptide or protein•Human Genome Project–3 billion base pairs that code for 30,000 genes•Duplication of DNA molecule–Helicase separates at hydrogen bonds–DNA polymerase adds new nucleotides
The Cell Cycle Introduction
Introduction •All reproduction begins at cellular level•Interphase–Previously called resting stage•Mitosis•Cytokinesis
Interphase
Interphase•Time between divisions–G1: Primary growth phase–S: DNA duplication–G2: Centrioles complete duplication, mitochondria replicate, chromosomes condense and coil
Mitosis prophase
Mitosis •Prophase–Chromosomes become visible as chromatids are joined by centromere–Two kinetochores at the centromere–Centrioles move to opposite poles–Nuclear membrane breaks down–Microtubules attach kinetochores to spindle
Mitosis (cont’d.) metaphase
Mitosis (cont’d.)•Metaphase–Chromatids align at equator of cell–Centromere divides
Mitosis (cont’d.) anaphase
Mitosis (cont’d.)•Anaphase–Divided centromere pulls chromatids to opposite pole–Cytokinesis begins
Mitosis (cont’d.)•Telophase
Mitosis (cont’d.)•Telophase–Chromosomes uncoil and decondense–Spindle apparatus breaks down–New nuclear membrane forms–Cytokinesis nearly complete
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis•Animal cells–Cleavage furrow forms–Cell is pinched into daughter cells•Plant cells–Cell plate forms at equator–Cell plate becomes new cell wall
Meiosis: A Reduction Division
Occurs only in the gonads•Reduces genetic material from diploid to haploid•Two divisions resulting in four cells
Stages of Meiosis
Stages of Meiosis•Prophase I: homologous chromosomes pair and cross over•Metaphase I: chromosomes align along equator•Anaphase I: centromeres pulled to poles–One member to each pole•Telophase I: one of each pair is at each pole
Stages of Meiosis (cont’d.)
Stages of Meiosis (cont’d.)•Prophase II: spindle forms; centrioles move to poles•Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at equator•Anaphase II: centromeres divide•Telophase II: chromatids at each pole; new nuclear membrane forms
Gametogenesis: The Formation of the Sex Cells (cont’d.)
Gametogenesis: The Formation of the Sex Cells (cont’d.)•Spermatogenesis–Four cells produced–Develop into sperm•Oogenesis–Four cells produced–Only one becomes functional egg
Introduction•Tissue
Introduction•Tissue: groups of cells with similar function•Histology: study of tissues•Tissue types –Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
Epithelial Tissue
Protects underlying tissues•Absorbs nutrients•Secretes hormones, mucus, enzymes•Excretes waste Basement membrane: anchor•Named according to shape, arrangement, function•Cells are closely packed
epithelial Classification Based on Shape•
Classification Based on Shape•Squamous: flat (protection)•Cuboidal: cube shaped (protection and secretion)•Columnar: tall and rectangular (secretion and absorption)
epithelial Classification Based on Arrangement
Classification Based on Arrangement•Simple: one cell layer•Stratified: several layers•Pseudostratified: appears to be several layers but is not•Transitional: several layers of easily stretched cells
epithilial Classification Based on Function•
Classification Based on Function•Mucous membrane: mucus production•Exocrine glands: simple and compound•Endocrine: hormone secretion•Endothelium: lines vessels–Endocardium •Mesothelium (serous): lines great cavities
Connective Tissue Introduction
Introduction •Cells with large amount of intercellular material•Matrix embedded with:–Collagen–Elastin•Subgroups: loose, dense, specialized
Loose Connective Tissue
Loose Connective Tissue•Fills space between and penetrates organs•Areolar: injury repair, phagocytosis, inflammatory response–Fibroblasts, histiocytes, mast cells•Adipose: fat storage•Reticular: framework
Dense Connective Tissue
Dense Connective Tissue•Regular arrangement–Tendons, ligaments, aponeuroses•Irregular arrangement–Muscle sheaths, joint capsules, fascia
Specialized Connective Tissue•
Specialized Connective Tissue•Cartilage–Cells called chondrocytes•Found in lacunae–Types•Hyaline: ribs, nose, trachea•Fibrocartilage: intervertebral disks•Elastic: ears, auditory tubes, epiglottis
Specialized Connective Tissue (cont’d.)
Specialized Connective Tissue (cont’d.)•Bone–Compact–Cancellous–Mineral salts: especially calcium and phosphorus•Teeth–Dentin–Enamel
Specialized Connective Tissue (cont’d.) 2
Specialized Connective Tissue (cont’d.)•Blood: fluid portion and formed elements•Lymphoid: antibody production and disease protection•Reticuloendothelial system: phagocytosis–Kupffer cells in liver–Macrophages–Neuroglia •Synovial: lines joints
Connective Tissue Functions
Connective Tissue Functions•Support–Bones, cartilage•Nourishment–Blood •Transportation–Blood •Connection–Tendons, ligaments
Connective Tissue Functions (cont’d.)
Connective Tissue Functions (cont’d.)•Movement–Bones, tendons•Protection and insulation–Bones, blood, fat•Storage–Bone, fat•Attachment and separation–Attaches skin to muscle
Muscle Tissue (cont’d.)•Smooth
Muscle Tissue (cont’d.)•Smooth–Spindle-shaped, single nucleus–Not striated–Involuntary–Digestive tract, arteries and veins, ureters–Peristalsis
Muscle Tissue (cont’d.)•Striated (skeletal)
Muscle Tissue (cont’d.)•Striated (skeletal)–Long thin cells–Multinucleated and striated–Actin and myosin–Voluntary–Movement by pulling on bones
Muscle Tissue (cont’d.)•Cardiac
Muscle Tissue (cont’d.)•Cardiac–Only in the heart–Uninucleated and striated–Involuntary–Cylindrical shape•Connected to other cardiac muscle cells by intercalated disks
Nervous Tissue (cont’d.)•Neurons
Nervous Tissue (cont’d.)•Neurons–Conducting cells–Very long: called nerve fibers–Parts•Cell body: contains nucleus•Dendrites: rootlike extensions that receive stimuli•Axons: long thin extensions that transmit impulse
Nervous Tissue (cont’d.)•Neuroglia:
Nervous Tissue (cont’d.)•Neuroglia: supporting cells•Nervous tissue–Makes up brain, spinal cord, and nerves–Is most highly organized tissue of the body–Controls and coordinates body activities–Allows perception–Controls emotion and reasoning–Stores memories
Introduction skin
Skin Large waterproof covering UV light and chemical protection Accessory structures Hair, nails, glands
The Layers of the Skin
Epidermis: upper layer Epithelial tissue divided into sublayers Dermis: lower layer Dense connective tissue Connects skin to fat and muscle Below dermis is subcutaneous layer called hypodermis
The Epidermis
Stratified, squamous, keratinized, epithelium
Keratinization
Cells move to surface, lose water, and nuclei change
Composed of five layers
The Epidermis (cont’d) Stratum corneum
Stratum corneum
Outermost layer
Dead, keratinized cells
Barrier to light, heat, chemicals, microorganisms
The Epidermis (cont’d.) Stratum lucidum
Stratum lucidum
One to two cell layers thick
Flat and transparent
Difficult to see
the epidermis (cont) Stratum granulosum
Stratum granulosum Two or three layers Flattened cells Active keratinization Lose nuclei Compact and brittle
The Epidermis (cont’d.) Stratum spinosum
Stratum spinosum
Several layers of spiny-shaped cells
Desmosomes prevalent
Desmosomes: interlocking cellular bridges
The Epidermis (cont’d) Stratum germinativum
Stratum germinativum Rests on basement membrane Lowermost layer called stratum basale New cells produced here (mitosis) Melanocytes: produce melanin Skin color Albinism
The Dermis
Also called corium Structures found in dermis Blood and lymph vessels Nerves Muscles Glands Hair follicles
The Dermis (cont’d)
Divisions Papillary Adjacent to the epidermis Reticular Between papillary and subcutaneous Subcutaneous (hypodermis) Layers of fat below the dermis
The Accessory Structures of the Skin
- Hair
- nails
- sebaceous glands
- Sweat glands
Hair
Covers most of the surface of the body Three parts: cuticle, cortex, medulla Shaft: visible portion Root: hair follicle Arrector pili: smooth muscle Growth Hair follicle Cycles of growth and rest Texture: straight, curly, or tightly curly Color: based on complex genetic factors
The Functions of the Skeletal System (cont’d.)
Supports surrounding tissues Protects vital organs and soft tissues Provides levers for muscles to pull on Manufactures blood cells Stores mineral salts (i.e. calcium & phosphorus)
The Functions of Cartilage
Cartilage
Connective tissue
Environment in which bone develops in fetus
Found at ends of bones and in joints
Ligaments
Attach bones to bones
function of Ligaments
Attach bones to bones
function of Tendons
Tendons
Attach muscles to bones
The Growth and Formation of Bone
A three-month fetal skeleton is completely formed (cartilage)
Ossification (osteogenesis) and growth begin
Longitudinal growth continues until:
15 years of age for girls
16 years of age for boys
Bone maturation until 21 years of age
Deposition of Bone
Osteoblasts: embryonic bone cells
Osteocytes: mature osteoblasts
** Strain on bone (exercise) increases bone
density (strength)
Osteoclasts: bone reabsorption and remodeling
Types of Ossification
Ossification (osteogenesis): laying of new bone
Intramembranous
Dense connective membranes replaced by calcium salts
Only occurs in Cranial bones
Cartilage NOT involved
Endochondral
Bone develops inside cartilage environment
Occurs in all other bones of the body
Maintaining Bone
Endocrine system controls Calcium storage Blood calcium levels Excretion of excess calcium Primary calcium regulation hormones: Parathormone (PTH): calcium release Calcitonin: calcium storage; inhibits calcium release
Peri means
around
osteo refers to
bone
sternum is also known as
breast bone
Hema refers to
blood
poiesis means
creation
yellow marrow stores
adipose/ fat
diaphysis: shaft
location of yellow bone marrow
the suture is like a
crevice
meatus is like a
tube
sinus is like a
cavity
the sulcus is like a
groove
cervical means
neck
thoracic
thorax
lumbar
lower back
coccyx
tail bone
how many bones make up the spine/ vertebrae
30
the manubrium is Latin for
shield
phalanx
singular
phalanges
plural
the big toe is on the same side as
the tibia
the little toe is on the same side as the
fibula
planus refers to
the sole of the foot
we have how many joints
9
syn means
fixed
arthro means
joint
gum=
gomphosis
chon
cartilage
supination
facing up
pronation
facing down
eversion
outward
inversion
inward
protraction
forwards
retraction
backward
ab
away from
abduction
away from body
abduction
towards body
sub means
below
Nails
Modified epidermal cells Lunula: white crescent Body: visible portion Root: covered by skin Growth occurs from the nailbed
Sebaceous Glands
Produce sebum (oil) Lubricates skin and hair Secretion controlled by endocrine system Increases at puberty Decreases in later life
Sweat Glands
Most numerous in palms and soles
Not found on margins of the lips or head of the penis
Each gland has secretory portion and excretory duct
Sweating helps cool the body
Functions of the Integumentary System
- Sensation
- Protection
- Thermoregulation
- Secretion
Sensation
Temperature receptors Hot and cold Pressure receptors Excessive pressure as pain Mild pressure as pleasurable Combinations produce burning, itching, tickling
Protection
Prevents passage of harmful physical and chemical agents Melanin protects from UV rays Lipid content inhibits water loss Acid mantle: kills most bacteria Nails protect ends of our digits Hair acts as insulation and filter
Thermoregulation
Normal body temperature: 98.6 degrees F When external temperatures increase Blood vessels dilate Sweat occurs When external temperatures decrease Blood vessels first dilate then constrict
Secretion
Sebum Cosmetic gloss Moisturizer Antifungal/antibacterial properties Sweat Essential in cooling process Vitamin D
The Skeletal System Introduction
Skeleton: supporting structure
Bones and associated cartilage, tendons and ligaments
Works with muscles for movement
Mineral salts form the inorganic matrix of bone
Leonardo da Vinci: constructed first correct illustrations of all bones
The Functions of the Skeletal System
Supports surrounding tissues Protects vital organs and soft tissues Provides levers for muscles to pull on Manufactures blood cells Stores mineral salts (i.e. calcium & phosphorus) Cartilage Connective tissue Environment in which bone develops in fetus Found at ends of bones and in joints Ligaments Attach bones to bones Tendons Attach muscles to bones
The Growth and Formation of Bone Introduction
A three-month fetal skeleton is completely formed (cartilage)
Ossification (osteogenesis) and growth begin
Longitudinal growth continues until:
15 years of age for girls
16 years of age for boys
Bone maturation until 21 years of age
Deposition of Bone
Osteoblasts: embryonic bone cells
Osteocytes: mature osteoblasts
** Strain on bone (exercise) increases bone
density (strength)
Osteoclasts: bone reabsorption and remodeling
Types of Ossification
Ossification (osteogenesis): laying of new bone
Intramembranous
Dense connective membranes replaced by calcium salts
Only occurs in Cranial bones
Cartilage NOT involved
Endochondral
Bone develops inside cartilage environment
Occurs in all other bones of the body
Maintaining Bone
Endocrine system controls Calcium storage Blood calcium levels Excretion of excess calcium Primary calcium regulation hormones: Parathormone (PTH): calcium release Calcitonin: calcium storage; inhibits calcium release
The Histology of Bone Introduction
Two types of bone: Compact (hard) Cancellous (spongy) Cancellous has bone marrow Osteocytes same in both types but arrangement of blood supply different
The Haversian Systems (Osteons) of Compact Bone
Clopton Havers: histology of compact bone
Haversian System (Osteon): runs parallel to surface
Holds blood vessels & nerves that supplies bone tissue
Surrounded by concentric rings of bone called Lamellae
Contains: Lacunae (cavities containing osteocytes)
Canaliculi connects lacunae
Cancellous (Spongy) Bone
Trabeculae: meshwork of bone
Creates spongy appearance
Bone marrow fills spaces between trabeculae
Bone Marrow
Red marrow Hematopoiesis Ribs, sternum, vertebrae, pelvis Yellow marrow Fat storage Shafts of long bones
Long Bones The Classification of Bones Based on Shape
Length exceeds width Consist of Diaphysis: shaft Metaphysis: flared portion Epiphysis: extremity
Short Bones The Classification of Bones Based on Shape
Not merely shorter versions of long bones Lack a long axis Somewhat irregular shape Examples: Wrist bones (carpals)
Flat Bones The Classification of Bones Based on Shape
Thin bones found wherever need for extensive muscle attachment
Usually curved
Example: Skull bones
Irregular Bones The Classification of Bones Based on Shape
Very irregular shape
Example: vertebrae
Spongy bone enclosed by thin layers of compact bone
Sesamoid Bones The Classification of Bones Based on Shape
Small rounded bones Enclosed in tendon and fascial tissue Located adjacent to joints Example Patella (knee cap)
Bone Markings Introduction
Bone Markings: Functions: muscle attachment, articulation (joining), passageways Processes: projections Fossae: depressions Foramen: holes Foramina- “mini” holes
Processes
Processes: projections from the surface
Spine, condyle, tubercle, trochlea, trochanter, crest, line, head, neck, notch
Fossae:
Fossae: depressions
i.e. suture, sulcus
Foramen:
Foramen: Holes or openings Examples: Foramen magnum Foramina- “Mini” passageways for blood vessels & nerves Meatus Canal Sinus
Divisions of the Skeleton
Typically has 206 named bones Axial part Skull, hyoid, vertebrae, ribs, sternum Appendicular part Upper extremities or arms Lower extremities or legs
The Cranial Bones
Frontal bone (1) Parietal bones (2) Occipital bone (1) Temporal bone (2) Sphenoid bone (1) Ethmoid bone (1) Auditory ossicles (
The Facial Bones
frontal view Nasal bones (2) Palatine bones (2) Maxillary bones (2) Zygomatic bones (2) Lacrimal bones (2) Nasal conchae (2) Vomer bone (1) Mandible (1)
Lateral view:
Nasal bones (2) Palatine bones (2) Maxillary bones (2) Zygomatic bones (2) Lacrimal bones (2) Nasal conchae (2) Vomer bone (1) Mandible (1)
The Orbits
Orbits: cavities enclose and protect the eyes
The Nasal Cavities
Nose framework surrounds the two nasal cavities
The Hyoid Bone
No articulation with other bones
Suspended by ligaments from styloid process
Supports the tongue
The Torso (Trunk)
Vertebrae Seven cervical (C1- C7) Twelve thoracic (T1- T12) Five lumbar (L1- L5) sacrum (S1- S5); 5 fused bones coccyx (1 structure consisting of 3 fused bones)
The Thorax
Thorax or rib cage made up of: Sternum Costal cartilages Ribs (Costae) Bodies of thoracic vertebrae Encloses and protects heart and lungs
The Sternum
Breastbone Has three parts Manubrium Gladiolus Xiphoid process Attachment for diaphragm and rectus abdominis
The Ribs (Costae)
Also called costae Attaches the sternum (anteriorly) to the thoracic vertebrae (posteriorly) 12 pairs True ribs False ribs Floating ribs
The Bones of the Upper Extremities
Shoulder girdle: clavicle and scapula Arm Upper arm: Humerus Forearm: Ulna and Radius Wrist: Carpals Hand: Metacarpals (5/hand) Fingers: Phalanges (14/hand) Wrist Bones (Carpals):
Hand Bones:
Metacarpals (5/foot)
Phalanges (14/foot)
The Bones of the Lower Extremities
Pelvic girdle: ischium, ilium, pubis Leg Upper leg: femur Lower leg: patella, tibia, fibula Ankle: Tarsals Foot Metatarsals (5/foot) Phalanges (14/foot)
The Arches of the Foot
Enable foot to bear weight while standing and to provide leverage while walking Medial longitudinal: highest Lateral longitudinal Transverse Pes planus: flat foot
Common Disorders Affecting the Bone: Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis: “porous bone”
Cause:↓ estrogen loss
↑ incidence in post-menopausal women & Caucasians
Effects: Height loss, Kyphosis, Pain,↑ Fracture risk
Px: adequate diet; Exercise
Tx: Diet modification & weight-bearing exercise
Common Disorders Affecting the Bone: Paget’s Disease
Paget’s Disease:
Cause: exact cause not fully understood; improperly functioning osteocytes AND osteoblasts
Effects: irregular thickening & softening of bones
Tx: High calcium & protein Diet and exercise
Common Disorders Affecting the Bone: Rickets/ Osteomalacia
Rickets (children) Osteomalacia (adults) Cause: Vitamin D deficiency Effects: ↓ bone density Tx: Vitamin D & calcium
The Articular System Introduction
Articulation: union between two or more bones Can be mobile or immobile Examples Sutures between skull bones Knee or elbow joint
The Classification of Joints: Structure and Function Introduction
Joints are classified into three major groups based on:
Degree of movement allowed (function)
Type of material holding bones together (structure)
Synarthroses
No movement
Made of Fibrous Tissue
Suture: bones connected by thin layer fibrous connective tissue (skull)
Syndesmosis: connected by ligaments between bones (radius and ulna)
Gomphosis: conical process in a socket (teeth)
Amphiarthroses
Slight movement Symphysis: connected by disk of fibrocartilage (pubic symphysis) Synchondrosis: connected by hyaline cartilage (growth plate between diaphysis and epiphyses Amphiarthroses: Symphysis: fibrocartilage Examples: Pubic Symphysis Intervertebral Discs Synchondrosis Amphiarthroses: Symphysis Synchondrosis: hyaline cartilage Examples: Growth Plate Costochondral Joint
Diarthroses or Synovial Joints
Free movement
Capsule with internal cavity:
Capsule composition: fibrous cartilage, ligaments, tendons, muscle, synovial membranes
Functions: weight bearing and movement
Diarthoses
All synovial joints
Fully movable joints
Most are in the appendicular skeleton
Classified into 3 categories based on the number of axes of motion provided by each
Movements at Synovial Joints (cont’d.)
Flexion/Extension Hyperextension: abnormal extension Dorsiflexion/Plantar flexion Abduction/Adduction Rotation Circumduction Elevation/ Depression Supination/Pronation Eversion/Inversion Protraction/Retraction Opposition/Reposition
The Six Types of Diarthroses (Synovial) Joints : Uniaxial
1. Hinge Convex surface fits into concave surface Flexion and extension only Knee Elbow
2.Pivot
Rotation in one plane
Atlas and axis (cervical spine)
Rotation of the head
The Six Types of Diarthroses (Synovial) Joints: Biaxial
- Condyloid (ellipsoidal)
Oval-shaped condyle fits into elliptical cavity
Motion in two planes at right angles
Radius and carpal bones - Saddle
Motion in two planes at right angles
Permits opposition of the thumb
The Six Types of Diarthroses (Synovial) Joints (Multiaxial
Gliding Gliding motion Intervertebral joints in spine Ball-and-socket Widest range of movement Movement can occur in all planes and directions Shoulder Hip
Bursae (cont’d.)
Closed sacs prevent friction between tissues
Synovial membrane lining
Subcutaneous: between skin and underlying bony processes
Subfascial: between overlying muscles
Subtendinous: between overlying tendons or bony projections
Common Diseases, Disorders, or Illnesses of the Articular System
- Arthritis- an inflammation of the whole joint.
- Rheumatoid arthritis- an autoimmune connective tissue disorder resulting in severe inflammation of small joints.
Tx: usually OTC Pain drugs; Immune-modulating drugs (if severe); Steroids (Flare Ups ONLY) - Osteoarthritis (degenerative joint disease)- occurs with advancing age especially in people in their 70s. Occurs on weight-bearing joints
Tx: usually OTC Pain drugs; weight-bearing exercises (if severe) - Gout (Gouty Arthritis)- an accumulation of uric acid crystals in the joint at the base of the large toe and other joints of the feet and legs.
Tx: usually OTC Pain drugs; Drugs to decrease uric acid