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1
Q

Introduction to anatomy and physiology

A

Anatomy: the study of the structure of the body

Physiology: the study of the function of the body parts

Pathology: the study of the disease of the body•Basic reference systems–Directions, planes, cavities, structural units

2
Q

Terms of Direction

A
Anterior: 
Posterior: 
Distal:
Proximal: 
Dorsal: 
Ventral: 
Superior: 
Inferior: 
Lateral: 
Medial: 
Rostral: 
Caudal: 
Bilateral: 
Unilateral:
Ipsilateral: 
Contralateral: 
Parietal: 
Visceral:
Axial: 
Intermediate:
3
Q

Anterior:

A

Anterior: In front of, front

4
Q

Posterior:

A

Posterior: After, behind, following, toward the rear

5
Q

Distal:

A

Distal: Away from, farther from the origin

6
Q

Proximal:

A

Proximal: Near, closer to the origin

7
Q

Dorsal:

A

Dorsal: Near the upper surface, toward the back

8
Q

Ventral:

A

Ventral: Toward the bottom, toward the belly

9
Q

Superior:

A

Superior: Above, over

10
Q

Inferior:

A

Inferior: Below, under

11
Q

Lateral:

A

Lateral: Toward the side, away from the mid-line

12
Q

Medial:

A

Medial: Toward the mid-line, middle, away from the side

13
Q

Rostral:

A

Rostral: Toward the front

14
Q

Caudal:

A

Caudal: Toward the back, toward the tail

15
Q

Bilateral:

A

Bilateral: Involving both sides of the body

16
Q

Unilateral:

A

Unilateral: Involving one side of the body

17
Q

Ipsilateral:

A

Ipsilateral: On the same side of the body

18
Q

Contralateral:

A

Contralateral: On opposite sides of the body

19
Q

Parietal:

A

Parietal: Relating to a body cavity wall

20
Q

Visceral:

A

Visceral: Relating to organs within body cavities

21
Q

Axial:

A

Axial: Around a central axis

22
Q

Intermediate:

A

Intermediate: Between two structures

23
Q

Planes

A

Lateral Plane or Sagittal Plane:

Median or Midsagittal Plane:

Parasagittal Plane:

Frontal Plane or Coronal Plane:

Transverse Plane:

24
Q

Lateral Plane or Sagittal Plane:

A

Lateral Plane or Sagittal Plane: Imagine a vertical plane that runs through your body from front to back or back to front. This plane divides the body into right and left regions.

25
Q

Median or Midsagittal Plane:

A

Median or Midsagittal Plane: Sagittal plane that divides the body into equal right and left regions.

26
Q

Parasagittal Plane:

A

Parasagittal Plane: Sagittal plane that divides the body into unequal right and left regions.

27
Q

Frontal Plane or Coronal Plane:

A

Frontal Plane or Coronal Plane: Imagine a vertical plane that runs through the center of your body from side to side. This plane divides the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) regions.

28
Q

Transverse Plane:

A

Transverse Plane: Imagine a horizontal plane that runs through the midsection of your body. This plane divides the body into upper (superior) and lower (inferior) regions.

29
Q

Dorsal cavity:

A

Dorsal cavity: Bones of the cranial portion of the skull and vertebral column, toward the posterior (dorsal) side of the body

30
Q

Cranial cavity:

A

Cranial cavity: Contains the brain

31
Q

Spinal cavity:

A

Spinal cavity: Contains the spinal cord, which is an extension of the brain

32
Q

Ventral cavity:

A

Ventral cavity: Anterior portion of the torso; divided by the diaphragm into the thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity

33
Q

Thoracic cavity:

A

Thoracic cavity: The chest; contains the trachea, bronchi, lungs, esophagus, heart and great blood vessels, thymus gland, lymph nodes, and nerve,. as well as the following smaller cavities:

34
Q

Pleural cavities:

A

Pleural cavities: Surround each lung

35
Q

Pericardial cavity:

A

Pericardial cavity: Contains the heart. The pleural cavities flank the pericardial cavity.

36
Q

Abdominopelvic cavity:

A

Abdominopelvic cavity: An imaginary line running across the hipbones and dividing the body into the abdominal and pelvic cavities:

37
Q

Abdominal cavity:

A

Abdominal cavity: Contains the stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, small intestines, and most of the large intestine

38
Q

Pelvic cavity:

A

Pelvic cavity: Contains the end of the large intestine, rectum, urinary bladder, and internal reproductive organs

39
Q

Structural Units

A
  1. Cells
  2. Tissues
  3. Organs
  4. Integumentary system
  5. Skeletal system
  6. Muscular system
  7. Nervous system
  8. Endocrine system
  9. Cardiovascular system
  10. Lymphatic/immune system
  11. Respiratory system
  12. Digestive system
  13. Urinary system
  14. Reproductive system
40
Q

Cells

A

Cells–Smallest units of life–Perform all activities necessary to maintain life•Metabolism, assimilation, digestion, excretion, reproduction

41
Q

Tissues

A

Tissues –Made up of different types of cells

–Epithelial: covers and protects

–Connective: binds and supports other tissues

–Muscle: movement

–Nervous: connects sensory structures to motor structures

42
Q

Organs

A

Organs–Cells integrated into tissues

–Serve a common function–Examples•Liver•Stomach•System is a group of organs

43
Q

Integumentary system

A

Integumentary system
–Organs •Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, sebaceous glands
–Functions•Protection, insulation, regulation of water and temperature

44
Q

Skeletal system

A

Skeletal system
–Organs•Bones, cartilage, membranous structures
–Functions•Movement, blood production, fat and mineral storage, protection

45
Q

Muscular system

A

Muscular system
–Organs•Muscles, fasciae, tendon sheaths, and bursae
–Functions•Movement, pushing food and blood, contracting heart

46
Q

Nervous system

A

Nervous system
–Organs•Brain, spinal cord, cranial and peripheral nerves, sensory and motor structures
–Function•Control and regulation, interpreting stimuli

47
Q

Endocrine system

A

Endocrine system
–Organs•Endocrine glands
–Function•Works with nervous system to regulate chemical aspects of the body

48
Q

Cardiovascular system

A

Cardiovascular system
–Organs•Heart, arteries, veins, capillaries
–Function •Transport substances to and from cells

49
Q

Lymphatic/immune system

A

Lymphatic/immune system
–Organs•Lymph nodes, lymph vessels, thymus gland, spleen
–Functions•Drains tissues of excess fluids, transports fats, develops immunities

50
Q

Respiratory system

A

Respiratory system
–Organs•Nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
–Function•O2 > CO2 exchange in the blood

51
Q

Digestive system

A

Digestive system
–Organs•Alimentary canal: mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum and anus•Associated glands: salivary, liver, pancreas
–Functions•Convert food into absorbable substances, eliminates wastes

52
Q

Urinary system

A

Urinary system
–Organs•Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
–Functions•Chemical regulation of blood•Formation and elimination of urine•Maintenance of homeostasis

53
Q

Reproductive system

A

Reproductive system
–Organs
•Women: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina
•Men: testes, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, penis, urethra
–Functions•Maintains sexual characteristics and perpetuates the species

54
Q

Homeostasis

A

Homeostasis (cont’d.)•Maintenance of the body’s internal environment–Within varying narrow limits•Negative feedback loop•Examples–Blood sugar levels–Body temperature

Body monitors deviations in homeostasis–Negative feedback loop•Responses that revise disturbances to body’s condition–Positive feedback•Increase in function in response to stimulus•Uterine contractions during labor•Organ systems help control internal environment

55
Q

Blood glucose

A

Blood glucose–Levels rise dramatically after meal–Cells take in glucose–Pancreas secretes insulin•Moves glucose into liver for storage as glycogen–Between meals, pancreas secretes glucagon•Turns glycogen into glucose and returns it to blood–Thus, glucose levels remain nearly constant

56
Q

Body temperature

A

Body temperature–Hypothalamus detects increase in body temperature–Causes sweating•Water evaporates and body is cooled–Blood vessels dilate to bring blood near body surface

57
Q

Atoms–

A

Atoms–Smallest particles of elements–Maintain all characteristics of element–Nucleus contains protons and neutrons–Electrons orbit nucleus in shells

58
Q

Element:

A

atoms contain same numbers of protons and electrons

59
Q

Compound:

A

Compound: contains two or more elements

60
Q

Isotope:

A

Isotope: number of neutrons varies

61
Q

Periodic table of the elements–

A

Periodic table of the elements–Arranges elements by increasing atomic number

62
Q

Orbital:

A

area where electron is found

63
Q

Energy levels:

A

Energy levels: grouping of orbitals–Represented as concentric circles surrounding nucleus

64
Q

Ionic:

A

Ionic: one atom gains and one atom loses electrons

65
Q

Covalent:

A

Covalent: atoms share electrons

66
Q

Hydrogen:

A

Hydrogen: weak bonds, hold water molecules together

67
Q

Bonds and Energy

A

Bonds and Energy (cont’d.)

•Ionic: one atom gains and one atom loses electrons

•Covalent: atoms share electrons•
Hydrogen: weak bonds, hold water molecules together

  • Electron donors vs. acceptors vs. carriers
  • Bonds are energy containing
68
Q

Common Substances in Living Systems

A
  1. Water
  2. Carbon Dioxide
  3. Molecular Oxygen
  4. Ammonia
  5. Mineral Salts
  6. Carbohydrates
  7. Lipids
  8. Proteins
  9. Nucleic Acids
  10. Adenosine Triphosphate
69
Q

Water

A
Water
•Most abundant substance in cells
•Universal solvent
•Transport of materials
•Absorbs and reduces heat•
Protects body structures
70
Q

Carbon Dioxide

A

Carbon Dioxide•Waste product of cellular respiration•Used in photosynthesis to produce usable energy sources•Must be removed quickly from cells•Carbon in molecules comes from carbon dioxide gas

71
Q

Molecular Oxygen•

A

Molecular Oxygen•Formed from covalent bond of two oxygen atoms•Required by all organisms that breathe air•Necessary to convert food into ATP•Level in atmosphere is 21%

72
Q

Ammonia

A

Ammonia•By-product of amino acid breakdown–Amino acids are building blocks of proteins–Amino acids contain nitrogen•Converted to urea in the liver

73
Q

Mineral Salts

A

Mineral Salts•Composed of small ions•Calcium: muscle contraction and strong bones•Phosphate: ATP synthesis•Sodium, potassium, and chloride are necessary for muscle contraction and nervous transmission

74
Q

Carbohydrates

A

Carbohydrates•1:2:1 ratio of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen•Five- and six-carbon simple sugars are smallest –Five-carbon: deoxyribose and ribose–Six-carbon: glucose and fructose•Functions: energy storage and cell structure

75
Q

Lipids

A

Lipids•Insoluble in water•95% of fats in body are triacylglycerols•Saturated fat: fatty acids have single covalent bonds•Unsaturated fat: fatty acids have one or more double covalent bonds•Functions: energy, insulation, and protection

76
Q

Proteins

A

Proteins•Contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur•Amino acids are building blocks of proteins•Functions: energy and structure•Enzymes: protein catalysts for chemical reactions

77
Q

Proteins (cont’d.)

A

Proteins (cont’d.)•Structure–Primary: amino acid sequence–Secondary: determined by hydrogen bonds–Tertiary: folding caused by interactions within peptide bonds and sulfur atoms–Quaternary: determined by spatial relationships between units

78
Q

Nucleic Acids

A

Nucleic Acids•Deoxyribonucleic acid: genetic material of the cell•Ribonucleic acid: protein synthesis–Messenger RNA–Transfer RNA•Structure–DNA: double helical chain–RNA: single chain

79
Q

Nucleic Acids (cont’d.)

A

Nucleic Acids (cont’d.)•Nucleic acids are made up of chains of nucleotides–Nucleotide: nitrogen base, sugar, and phosphate group–Nitrogen bases: purines (two) and pyrimidines (three)

80
Q

Adenosine Triphosphate

A

Adenosine Triphosphate•Fuel for cell function and maintenance•Molecule consists of sugar, adenine, and three phosphates–Energy is stored in the second and third phosphates•Breakdown of glucose provides energy to make ATP

81
Q

Movement of Materials into and out of Cells

A

Plasma membrane is selectively permeable–Only selected materials can enter and exit–This is because of chemical structure–Water can enter and exit with ease

82
Q

Diffusion

A

Diffusion•Movement of molecules from area of high concentration to low concentration•Brownian movement: random collision of diffusing molecules•Accelerated by increased temperature•O2–CO2 exchange is an example of diffusion

83
Q

Osmosis

A

Osmosis•Movement of water through semipermeable membrane from high concentration to low concentration–Isotonic solution: salt concentration is the same outside the cell as inside–Hypotonic solution: salt concentration inside cell is higher than outside cell–Hypertonic solution: salt concentration is higher outside the cell than inside

84
Q

Osmosis (cont’d.)

A

Osmosis (cont’d.)•Active transport–Used by cells to obtain sugars, amino acids, larger proteins, and fats–Needs energy in the form of ATP–Molecules move from areas of low concentration to areas of high concentration

85
Q

pH

A

pH (cont’d.)•Negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration•Acids: pH values below 7•Bases: pH values above 7•Buffers: help maintain pH levels

86
Q

cell structure introduction

A

The cell is the basic unit of biological organization•Basic composition–Protoplasm–Cell membrane–Organelles•Eukaryotic vs. prokaryotic

87
Q

History of the Cell Theory

A

History of the Cell Theory•Proposed in 1830s by Schleiden and Schwann•Modern cell theory–Cells are the smallest complete living things–All organisms are composed of one or more cells–Cells arise only from other cells–All existing cells are descendants of the first cells

88
Q

Anatomy of a Typical Eukaryotic Cell

A
  1. The Cell Membrane
  2. Cytoplasm of the Cell
  3. The Nucleus•
  4. The Mitochondria
  5. Lysosomes
  6. Endoplasmic Reticulum
  7. Ribosomes
  8. Centrioles
  9. Cilia and Flagella
  10. Plastids of Plant Cells
89
Q

The Cell Membrane

A

The Cell Membrane•Double phospholipid layer with embedded proteins•Membrane transport: selectively permeable membrane–Osmosis–Protein channels–Active transport–Fluid mosaic model

90
Q

Cytoplasm of the Cell

A

Cytoplasm of the Cell•Mostly water with chemical compounds in solution or colloid–Solution vs. colloid•Individual vs. clumped atoms or ions distributed in medium•Polar compounds go into solution•Nonpolar compounds go into colloidal suspension

91
Q

The Nucleus

A

The Nucleus•Control center of the cell•Nuclear membrane has pores to allow the passage of substances•Chromatin genetic material inside nucleoplasm•Nucleolus: site of ribosome formation

92
Q

The Mitochondria

A

The Mitochondria•Powerhouses of the cell•Cristae: inner folds where cellular respiration occurs•Energy requirements of cell determine cristae number

93
Q

Lysosomes

A

Lysosomes•Digestive enzyme packages•Function–Digest stored food–Maintenance and repair of organelles–Suicide agents for old or weak cells

94
Q

Endoplasmic Reticulum

A

Endoplasmic Reticulum•System of membranes that makes up channels•Connects with outer nuclear and cell membranes•Cisternae: sac like or channel like cavities

95
Q

Endoplasmic Reticulum (cont’d.)

A

Endoplasmic Reticulum (cont’d.)•Rough ER–For protein synthesis–Attached ribosomes•Smooth ER–Fat transport–Sex hormone synthesis

96
Q

Endoplasmic Reticulum (cont’d.)

A

Endoplasmic Reticulum (cont’d.)•Golgi apparatus–Collection of flat saclike cisternae–Concentration and collection of cellular compounds–Storage warehouses of the cell–Carbohydrate synthesis site

97
Q

Ribosomes

A

Ribosomes•Distributed throughout cytoplasm•Attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum•No membrane covering•Site of protein synthesis

98
Q

Ribosomes (cont’d.)

A

Ribosomes (cont’d.)•Protein functions–Structure, enzymes or catalysts, immune response•DNA contains the code for a particular protein–DNA found in nucleus

99
Q

Ribosomes (cont’d.)

A

Ribosomes (cont’d.)•Transcription–Messenger RNA copies DNA code and leaves nucleus•Translation–Transfer RNA picks up amino acids–Ribosomes link amino acids together

100
Q

Centrioles

A

Centrioles•Centrosome: two centrioles at right angles to each other–Composed of nine sets of triplet fibers•Form spindle fibers during cell division•Guide duplicated chromosomes to daughter cells

101
Q

Cilia and Flagella

A

Cilia and Flagella•Hairlike protrusions from cell membrane•Nine double fibrils around two single central fibrils•Cilia move materials across cell surface•Flagellum propels cell through a medium

102
Q

Plastids of Plant Cells

A

Plastids of Plant Cells•Chloroplasts–Most common plastid–Photosynthesis: conversion of light into chemical energy–Granum•Made of thylakoids•Connected by lamella•Chromoplasts: carotenoid pigments•Leucoplasts: store food

103
Q

Plastids of Plant Cells (cont’d.)

A

Plastids of Plant Cells (cont’d.)•Cell membrane surrounded by cell wall •Cell wall composed of cellulose–Cellulose•Dietary fiber•Synthesized by Golgi bodies•Animal cells do not have cell walls

104
Q

Introduction to Cellular Metabolism

A

Introduction to Cellular Metabolism•Metabolism: total cellular chemical changes–Anabolism: process of building up–Catabolism: process of breaking down•Calorie: measure of energy contained in food •ATP: energy source available to the cell

105
Q

Glycolysis

A

Glycolysis•Breakdown of glucose•Anaerobic or aerobic process•Final outcome–2 pyruvic acid molecules, 2 ATP molecules (anaerobic), 8 ATP molecules (aerobic)

106
Q

The Krebs Citric Acid Cycle

A

The Krebs Citric Acid Cycle•Pyruvic Acid > Acetic Acid > Acetyl-CoA•Acetyl-CoA enters Krebs cycle in mitochondria•Final outcome–6 CO2, 8 NADH2, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP (GTP)

107
Q

The Electron Transport (Transfer) System

A

The Electron Transport (Transfer) System•Series of reduction/oxidation reactions•Requires O2•Electron carriers•Number of ATP molecules dependent on electron carrier•Water is a waste product

108
Q

Summary of ATP Production•

A

Summary of ATP Production•During glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and electron transport•Glycolysis: 8 ATP (aerobic)•Krebs cycle and electron transport–28 ATP + 2 GTP or–30 ATP•1 glucose molecule yields 38 ATP

109
Q

Anaerobic Respiration

A

Fermentation

Anaerobic Production of ATP by Muscles

110
Q

Fermentation

A

Fermentation•Yeast breaks down glucose anaerobically•Pyruvic acid is broken down by decarboxylase–Forms carbon dioxide and acetaldehyde•Final products: 2 ATP, CO2,ethyl alcohol

111
Q

Anaerobic Production of ATP by Muscles

A

11Anaerobic Production of ATP by Muscles•Pyruvic acid converted to lactic acid–Accumulation of lactic acid causes fatigue in muscles–When oxygen is supplied, lactic acid turns back into pyruvic acid•2 ATP produced per glucose molecule

112
Q

Production of ATP from General Food Compounds

A

Production of ATP from General Food Compounds (cont’d.)•Carbohydrates fit into cellular furnace at same level as glucose–Can be stored in liver or as fat•Fats digested into fatty acids and glycerol–Glycerol enters at PGA stage of glycolysis–Fatty acids enter Krebs citric acid cycle

113
Q

Production of ATP from General Food Compounds (cont’d.)

A

Production of ATP from General Food Compounds (cont’d.)•Proteins digested into amino acids–Enter into Krebs cycle at different stages•Dependent on chemical structure

114
Q

Introduction to Cellular Reproduction (cont’d.)

A

Introduction to Cellular Reproduction (cont’d.)•Process of cell duplication•Mitosis: duplication of genetic material•Cytokinesis: duplication of organelles•Meiosis: reduction division only in gonads

115
Q

The History of the Discovery of DNA

A

The History of the Discovery of DNA•Friedrich Miescher, 1869: first discovery•P.A. Levene, 1920s: composition•Rosalind Franklin: helical structure•Watson and Crick: three-dimensional structure

116
Q

The Anatomy of the DNA Molecule

A

The Anatomy of the DNA Molecule•Double helical chain of nucleotides–Phosphate group–Five-carbon sugars (deoxyribose)–Nitrogen-containing base•Pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine)•Purines (adenine and guanine)–Pyrimidines pair with purines–Chains held together by hydrogen bonds

117
Q

The Anatomy of the DNA Molecule (cont’d.)

A

The Anatomy of the DNA Molecule (cont’d.)•Gene: sequence of base pairs that codes for polypeptide or protein•Human Genome Project–3 billion base pairs that code for 30,000 genes•Duplication of DNA molecule–Helicase separates at hydrogen bonds–DNA polymerase adds new nucleotides

118
Q

The Cell Cycle Introduction

A

Introduction •All reproduction begins at cellular level•Interphase–Previously called resting stage•Mitosis•Cytokinesis

119
Q

Interphase

A

Interphase•Time between divisions–G1: Primary growth phase–S: DNA duplication–G2: Centrioles complete duplication, mitochondria replicate, chromosomes condense and coil

120
Q

Mitosis prophase

A

Mitosis •Prophase–Chromosomes become visible as chromatids are joined by centromere–Two kinetochores at the centromere–Centrioles move to opposite poles–Nuclear membrane breaks down–Microtubules attach kinetochores to spindle

121
Q

Mitosis (cont’d.) metaphase

A

Mitosis (cont’d.)•Metaphase–Chromatids align at equator of cell–Centromere divides

122
Q

Mitosis (cont’d.) anaphase

A

Mitosis (cont’d.)•Anaphase–Divided centromere pulls chromatids to opposite pole–Cytokinesis begins

123
Q

Mitosis (cont’d.)•Telophase

A

Mitosis (cont’d.)•Telophase–Chromosomes uncoil and decondense–Spindle apparatus breaks down–New nuclear membrane forms–Cytokinesis nearly complete

124
Q

Cytokinesis

A

Cytokinesis•Animal cells–Cleavage furrow forms–Cell is pinched into daughter cells•Plant cells–Cell plate forms at equator–Cell plate becomes new cell wall

125
Q

Meiosis: A Reduction Division

A

Occurs only in the gonads•Reduces genetic material from diploid to haploid•Two divisions resulting in four cells

126
Q

Stages of Meiosis

A

Stages of Meiosis•Prophase I: homologous chromosomes pair and cross over•Metaphase I: chromosomes align along equator•Anaphase I: centromeres pulled to poles–One member to each pole•Telophase I: one of each pair is at each pole

127
Q

Stages of Meiosis (cont’d.)

A

Stages of Meiosis (cont’d.)•Prophase II: spindle forms; centrioles move to poles•Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at equator•Anaphase II: centromeres divide•Telophase II: chromatids at each pole; new nuclear membrane forms

128
Q

Gametogenesis: The Formation of the Sex Cells (cont’d.)

A

Gametogenesis: The Formation of the Sex Cells (cont’d.)•Spermatogenesis–Four cells produced–Develop into sperm•Oogenesis–Four cells produced–Only one becomes functional egg

129
Q

Introduction•Tissue

A

Introduction•Tissue: groups of cells with similar function•Histology: study of tissues•Tissue types –Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

130
Q

Epithelial Tissue

A

Protects underlying tissues•Absorbs nutrients•Secretes hormones, mucus, enzymes•Excretes waste Basement membrane: anchor•Named according to shape, arrangement, function•Cells are closely packed

131
Q

epithelial Classification Based on Shape•

A

Classification Based on Shape•Squamous: flat (protection)•Cuboidal: cube shaped (protection and secretion)•Columnar: tall and rectangular (secretion and absorption)

132
Q

epithelial Classification Based on Arrangement

A

Classification Based on Arrangement•Simple: one cell layer•Stratified: several layers•Pseudostratified: appears to be several layers but is not•Transitional: several layers of easily stretched cells

133
Q

epithilial Classification Based on Function•

A

Classification Based on Function•Mucous membrane: mucus production•Exocrine glands: simple and compound•Endocrine: hormone secretion•Endothelium: lines vessels–Endocardium •Mesothelium (serous): lines great cavities

134
Q

Connective Tissue Introduction

A

Introduction •Cells with large amount of intercellular material•Matrix embedded with:–Collagen–Elastin•Subgroups: loose, dense, specialized

135
Q

Loose Connective Tissue

A

Loose Connective Tissue•Fills space between and penetrates organs•Areolar: injury repair, phagocytosis, inflammatory response–Fibroblasts, histiocytes, mast cells•Adipose: fat storage•Reticular: framework

136
Q

Dense Connective Tissue

A

Dense Connective Tissue•Regular arrangement–Tendons, ligaments, aponeuroses•Irregular arrangement–Muscle sheaths, joint capsules, fascia

137
Q

Specialized Connective Tissue•

A

Specialized Connective Tissue•Cartilage–Cells called chondrocytes•Found in lacunae–Types•Hyaline: ribs, nose, trachea•Fibrocartilage: intervertebral disks•Elastic: ears, auditory tubes, epiglottis

138
Q

Specialized Connective Tissue (cont’d.)

A

Specialized Connective Tissue (cont’d.)•Bone–Compact–Cancellous–Mineral salts: especially calcium and phosphorus•Teeth–Dentin–Enamel

139
Q

Specialized Connective Tissue (cont’d.) 2

A

Specialized Connective Tissue (cont’d.)•Blood: fluid portion and formed elements•Lymphoid: antibody production and disease protection•Reticuloendothelial system: phagocytosis–Kupffer cells in liver–Macrophages–Neuroglia •Synovial: lines joints

140
Q

Connective Tissue Functions

A

Connective Tissue Functions•Support–Bones, cartilage•Nourishment–Blood •Transportation–Blood •Connection–Tendons, ligaments

141
Q

Connective Tissue Functions (cont’d.)

A

Connective Tissue Functions (cont’d.)•Movement–Bones, tendons•Protection and insulation–Bones, blood, fat•Storage–Bone, fat•Attachment and separation–Attaches skin to muscle

142
Q

Muscle Tissue (cont’d.)•Smooth

A

Muscle Tissue (cont’d.)•Smooth–Spindle-shaped, single nucleus–Not striated–Involuntary–Digestive tract, arteries and veins, ureters–Peristalsis

143
Q

Muscle Tissue (cont’d.)•Striated (skeletal)

A

Muscle Tissue (cont’d.)•Striated (skeletal)–Long thin cells–Multinucleated and striated–Actin and myosin–Voluntary–Movement by pulling on bones

144
Q

Muscle Tissue (cont’d.)•Cardiac

A

Muscle Tissue (cont’d.)•Cardiac–Only in the heart–Uninucleated and striated–Involuntary–Cylindrical shape•Connected to other cardiac muscle cells by intercalated disks

145
Q

Nervous Tissue (cont’d.)•Neurons

A

Nervous Tissue (cont’d.)•Neurons–Conducting cells–Very long: called nerve fibers–Parts•Cell body: contains nucleus•Dendrites: rootlike extensions that receive stimuli•Axons: long thin extensions that transmit impulse

146
Q

Nervous Tissue (cont’d.)•Neuroglia:

A

Nervous Tissue (cont’d.)•Neuroglia: supporting cells•Nervous tissue–Makes up brain, spinal cord, and nerves–Is most highly organized tissue of the body–Controls and coordinates body activities–Allows perception–Controls emotion and reasoning–Stores memories

147
Q

Introduction skin

A
Skin
Large waterproof covering
UV light and chemical protection
Accessory structures
Hair, nails, glands
148
Q

The Layers of the Skin

A
Epidermis: upper layer
Epithelial tissue divided into sublayers
Dermis: lower layer
Dense connective tissue 
Connects skin to fat and muscle
Below dermis is subcutaneous layer called hypodermis
149
Q

The Epidermis

A

Stratified, squamous, keratinized, epithelium
Keratinization
Cells move to surface, lose water, and nuclei change
Composed of five layers

150
Q

The Epidermis (cont’d) Stratum corneum

A

Stratum corneum
Outermost layer
Dead, keratinized cells
Barrier to light, heat, chemicals, microorganisms

151
Q

The Epidermis (cont’d.) Stratum lucidum

A

Stratum lucidum
One to two cell layers thick
Flat and transparent
Difficult to see

152
Q

the epidermis (cont) Stratum granulosum

A
Stratum granulosum
Two or three layers
Flattened cells
Active keratinization
Lose nuclei
Compact and brittle
153
Q

The Epidermis (cont’d.) Stratum spinosum

A

Stratum spinosum
Several layers of spiny-shaped cells
Desmosomes prevalent
Desmosomes: interlocking cellular bridges

154
Q

The Epidermis (cont’d) Stratum germinativum

A
Stratum germinativum
Rests on basement membrane
Lowermost layer called stratum basale
New cells produced here (mitosis)
Melanocytes: produce melanin
Skin color
Albinism
155
Q

The Dermis

A
Also called corium
Structures found in dermis
Blood and lymph vessels
Nerves
Muscles
Glands
Hair follicles
156
Q

The Dermis (cont’d)

A
Divisions
Papillary
Adjacent to the epidermis
Reticular
Between papillary and subcutaneous
Subcutaneous (hypodermis)
Layers of fat below the dermis
157
Q

The Accessory Structures of the Skin

A
  1. Hair
  2. nails
  3. sebaceous glands
  4. Sweat glands
158
Q

Hair

A
Covers most of the surface of the body
Three parts: cuticle, cortex, medulla
Shaft: visible portion
Root: hair follicle
Arrector pili: smooth muscle
Growth
Hair follicle
Cycles of growth and rest
Texture: straight, curly, or tightly curly
Color: based on complex genetic factors
159
Q

The Functions of the Skeletal System (cont’d.)

A
Supports surrounding tissues
Protects vital organs and soft tissues
Provides levers for muscles to pull on
Manufactures blood cells
Stores mineral salts (i.e. calcium & phosphorus)
160
Q

The Functions of Cartilage

A

Cartilage
Connective tissue
Environment in which bone develops in fetus
Found at ends of bones and in joints

161
Q

Ligaments

A

Attach bones to bones

162
Q

function of Ligaments

A

Attach bones to bones

163
Q

function of Tendons

A

Tendons

Attach muscles to bones

164
Q

The Growth and Formation of Bone

A

A three-month fetal skeleton is completely formed (cartilage)
Ossification (osteogenesis) and growth begin
Longitudinal growth continues until:
15 years of age for girls
16 years of age for boys
Bone maturation until 21 years of age

165
Q

Deposition of Bone

A

Osteoblasts: embryonic bone cells
Osteocytes: mature osteoblasts

** Strain on bone (exercise) increases bone
density (strength)

Osteoclasts: bone reabsorption and remodeling

166
Q

Types of Ossification

A

Ossification (osteogenesis): laying of new bone
Intramembranous
Dense connective membranes replaced by calcium salts
Only occurs in Cranial bones
Cartilage NOT involved
Endochondral
Bone develops inside cartilage environment
Occurs in all other bones of the body

167
Q

Maintaining Bone

A
Endocrine system controls
Calcium storage
Blood calcium levels
Excretion of excess calcium
Primary calcium regulation hormones:
Parathormone (PTH): calcium release
Calcitonin: calcium storage; inhibits calcium release
168
Q

Peri means

A

around

169
Q

osteo refers to

A

bone

170
Q

sternum is also known as

A

breast bone

171
Q

Hema refers to

A

blood

172
Q

poiesis means

A

creation

173
Q

yellow marrow stores

A

adipose/ fat

174
Q

diaphysis: shaft

A

location of yellow bone marrow

175
Q

the suture is like a

A

crevice

176
Q

meatus is like a

A

tube

177
Q

sinus is like a

A

cavity

178
Q

the sulcus is like a

A

groove

179
Q

cervical means

A

neck

180
Q

thoracic

A

thorax

181
Q

lumbar

A

lower back

182
Q

coccyx

A

tail bone

183
Q

how many bones make up the spine/ vertebrae

A

30

184
Q

the manubrium is Latin for

A

shield

185
Q

phalanx

A

singular

186
Q

phalanges

A

plural

187
Q

the big toe is on the same side as

A

the tibia

188
Q

the little toe is on the same side as the

A

fibula

189
Q

planus refers to

A

the sole of the foot

190
Q

we have how many joints

A

9

191
Q

syn means

A

fixed

192
Q

arthro means

A

joint

193
Q

gum=

A

gomphosis

194
Q

chon

A

cartilage

195
Q

supination

A

facing up

196
Q

pronation

A

facing down

197
Q

eversion

A

outward

198
Q

inversion

A

inward

199
Q

protraction

A

forwards

200
Q

retraction

A

backward

201
Q

ab

A

away from

202
Q

abduction

A

away from body

203
Q

abduction

A

towards body

204
Q

sub means

A

below

205
Q

Nails

A
Modified epidermal cells
Lunula: white crescent
Body: visible portion
Root: covered by skin
Growth occurs from the nailbed
206
Q

Sebaceous Glands

A
Produce sebum (oil)
Lubricates skin and hair
Secretion controlled by endocrine system
Increases at puberty
Decreases in later life
207
Q

Sweat Glands

A

Most numerous in palms and soles
Not found on margins of the lips or head of the penis
Each gland has secretory portion and excretory duct
Sweating helps cool the body

208
Q

Functions of the Integumentary System

A
  1. Sensation
  2. Protection
  3. Thermoregulation
  4. Secretion
209
Q

Sensation

A
Temperature receptors
Hot and cold
Pressure receptors
Excessive pressure as pain
Mild pressure as pleasurable
Combinations produce burning, itching, tickling
210
Q

Protection

A
Prevents passage of harmful physical and chemical agents
Melanin protects from UV rays
Lipid content inhibits water loss
Acid mantle: kills most bacteria
Nails protect ends of our digits
Hair acts as insulation and filter
211
Q

Thermoregulation

A
Normal body temperature: 98.6 degrees F
When external temperatures increase
Blood vessels dilate
Sweat occurs
When external temperatures decrease
Blood vessels first dilate then constrict
212
Q

Secretion

A
Sebum
Cosmetic gloss
Moisturizer
Antifungal/antibacterial properties
Sweat
Essential in cooling process
Vitamin D
213
Q

The Skeletal System Introduction

A

Skeleton: supporting structure
Bones and associated cartilage, tendons and ligaments
Works with muscles for movement
Mineral salts form the inorganic matrix of bone
Leonardo da Vinci: constructed first correct illustrations of all bones

214
Q

The Functions of the Skeletal System

A
Supports surrounding tissues
Protects vital organs and soft tissues
Provides levers for muscles to pull on
Manufactures blood cells
Stores mineral salts (i.e. calcium & phosphorus)
Cartilage
Connective tissue
Environment in which bone develops in fetus
Found at ends of bones and in joints
Ligaments
Attach bones to bones
Tendons
Attach muscles to bones
215
Q

The Growth and Formation of Bone Introduction

A

A three-month fetal skeleton is completely formed (cartilage)
Ossification (osteogenesis) and growth begin
Longitudinal growth continues until:
15 years of age for girls
16 years of age for boys
Bone maturation until 21 years of age

216
Q

Deposition of Bone

A

Osteoblasts: embryonic bone cells
Osteocytes: mature osteoblasts

** Strain on bone (exercise) increases bone
density (strength)

Osteoclasts: bone reabsorption and remodeling

217
Q

Types of Ossification

A

Ossification (osteogenesis): laying of new bone
Intramembranous
Dense connective membranes replaced by calcium salts
Only occurs in Cranial bones
Cartilage NOT involved
Endochondral
Bone develops inside cartilage environment
Occurs in all other bones of the body

218
Q

Maintaining Bone

A
Endocrine system controls
Calcium storage
Blood calcium levels
Excretion of excess calcium
Primary calcium regulation hormones:
Parathormone (PTH): calcium release
Calcitonin: calcium storage; inhibits calcium release
219
Q

The Histology of Bone Introduction

A
Two types of bone:
Compact (hard) 
Cancellous (spongy)
Cancellous has bone marrow
Osteocytes same in both types but arrangement of blood supply different
220
Q

The Haversian Systems (Osteons) of Compact Bone

A

Clopton Havers: histology of compact bone
Haversian System (Osteon): runs parallel to surface
Holds blood vessels & nerves that supplies bone tissue
Surrounded by concentric rings of bone called Lamellae
Contains: Lacunae (cavities containing osteocytes)
Canaliculi connects lacunae

221
Q

Cancellous (Spongy) Bone

A

Trabeculae: meshwork of bone
Creates spongy appearance
Bone marrow fills spaces between trabeculae

222
Q

Bone Marrow

A
Red marrow
Hematopoiesis
Ribs, sternum, vertebrae, pelvis
Yellow marrow
Fat storage
Shafts of long bones
223
Q

Long Bones The Classification of Bones Based on Shape

A
Length exceeds width
Consist of
Diaphysis: shaft
Metaphysis: flared portion
Epiphysis: extremity
224
Q

Short Bones The Classification of Bones Based on Shape

A
Not merely shorter versions of long bones
Lack a long axis
Somewhat irregular shape
Examples:
Wrist bones (carpals)
225
Q

Flat Bones The Classification of Bones Based on Shape

A

Thin bones found wherever need for extensive muscle attachment
Usually curved
Example: Skull bones

226
Q

Irregular Bones The Classification of Bones Based on Shape

A

Very irregular shape
Example: vertebrae
Spongy bone enclosed by thin layers of compact bone

227
Q

Sesamoid Bones The Classification of Bones Based on Shape

A
Small rounded bones
Enclosed in tendon and fascial tissue
Located adjacent to joints
Example
Patella (knee cap)
228
Q

Bone Markings Introduction

A
Bone Markings:
Functions: muscle attachment, articulation (joining), passageways
Processes: projections
Fossae: depressions
Foramen: holes
Foramina- “mini” holes
229
Q

Processes

A

Processes: projections from the surface

Spine, condyle, tubercle, trochlea, trochanter, crest, line, head, neck, notch

230
Q

Fossae:

A

Fossae: depressions

i.e. suture, sulcus

231
Q

Foramen:

A
Foramen: 
Holes or openings
Examples:
Foramen magnum
Foramina- “Mini” passageways for blood vessels & nerves
Meatus
Canal
Sinus
232
Q

Divisions of the Skeleton


A
Typically has 206 named bones
Axial part
Skull, hyoid, vertebrae, ribs, sternum
Appendicular part
Upper extremities or arms
Lower extremities or legs
233
Q

The Cranial Bones

A
Frontal bone (1)
Parietal bones (2)
Occipital bone (1)
Temporal bone (2)
Sphenoid bone (1)
Ethmoid bone (1)
Auditory ossicles (
234
Q

The Facial Bones

A
frontal view 
Nasal bones (2)
Palatine bones (2) 
Maxillary bones (2)
Zygomatic bones (2)
Lacrimal bones (2)
Nasal conchae (2)
Vomer bone (1)
Mandible (1)

Lateral view:

Nasal bones (2)
Palatine bones (2) 
Maxillary bones (2)
Zygomatic bones (2)
Lacrimal bones (2)
Nasal conchae (2)
Vomer bone (1)
Mandible (1)
235
Q

The Orbits

A

Orbits: cavities enclose and protect the eyes

236
Q

The Nasal Cavities

A

Nose framework surrounds the two nasal cavities

237
Q

The Hyoid Bone

A

No articulation with other bones
Suspended by ligaments from styloid process
Supports the tongue

238
Q

The Torso (Trunk)

A
Vertebrae
Seven cervical (C1- C7)
Twelve thoracic (T1- T12)
Five lumbar (L1- L5)
sacrum (S1- S5); 5 fused bones
coccyx (1 structure consisting of 3 fused bones)
239
Q

The Thorax

A
Thorax or rib cage made up of:
Sternum
Costal cartilages
Ribs (Costae)
Bodies of thoracic vertebrae
Encloses and protects heart and lungs
240
Q

The Sternum

A
Breastbone
Has three parts
Manubrium
Gladiolus
Xiphoid process
Attachment for diaphragm and rectus abdominis
241
Q

The Ribs (Costae)

A
Also called costae
Attaches the sternum (anteriorly) to the thoracic vertebrae (posteriorly)
12 pairs
True ribs
False ribs
Floating ribs
242
Q

The Bones of the Upper Extremities

A
Shoulder girdle: clavicle and scapula
Arm
Upper arm: Humerus
Forearm: Ulna and Radius
Wrist: Carpals
Hand: Metacarpals (5/hand)
Fingers: Phalanges (14/hand)
Wrist Bones (Carpals):

Hand Bones:
Metacarpals (5/foot)
Phalanges (14/foot)

243
Q

The Bones of the Lower Extremities

A
Pelvic girdle: ischium, ilium, pubis
Leg
Upper leg: femur
Lower leg: patella, tibia, fibula
Ankle: Tarsals
Foot
Metatarsals (5/foot)
Phalanges (14/foot)
244
Q

The Arches of the Foot

A
Enable foot to bear weight while standing and to provide leverage while walking
Medial longitudinal: highest
Lateral longitudinal
Transverse
Pes planus: flat foot
245
Q

Common Disorders Affecting the Bone: Osteoporosis

A

Osteoporosis: “porous bone”
Cause:↓ estrogen loss
↑ incidence in post-menopausal women & Caucasians
Effects: Height loss, Kyphosis, Pain,↑ Fracture risk
Px: adequate diet; Exercise
Tx: Diet modification & weight-bearing exercise

246
Q

Common Disorders Affecting the Bone: Paget’s Disease

A

Paget’s Disease:
Cause: exact cause not fully understood; improperly functioning osteocytes AND osteoblasts
Effects: irregular thickening & softening of bones
Tx: High calcium & protein Diet and exercise

247
Q

Common Disorders Affecting the Bone: Rickets/ Osteomalacia

A
Rickets (children)
Osteomalacia (adults) 
Cause: Vitamin D deficiency
Effects: ↓ bone density
Tx: Vitamin D & calcium
248
Q

The Articular System Introduction

A
Articulation: union between two or more bones
Can be mobile or immobile
Examples
Sutures between skull bones
Knee or elbow joint
249
Q

The Classification of Joints: Structure and Function Introduction

A

Joints are classified into three major groups based on:
Degree of movement allowed (function)
Type of material holding bones together (structure)

250
Q

Synarthroses

A

No movement
Made of Fibrous Tissue
Suture: bones connected by thin layer fibrous connective tissue (skull)
Syndesmosis: connected by ligaments between bones (radius and ulna)
Gomphosis: conical process in a socket (teeth)

251
Q

Amphiarthroses

A
Slight movement
Symphysis: connected by disk of fibrocartilage (pubic symphysis)
Synchondrosis: connected by hyaline cartilage (growth plate between diaphysis and epiphyses
Amphiarthroses:
Symphysis: fibrocartilage
Examples:
Pubic Symphysis
Intervertebral Discs
Synchondrosis
Amphiarthroses:
Symphysis 
Synchondrosis: hyaline cartilage
Examples:
Growth Plate
Costochondral Joint
252
Q

Diarthroses or Synovial Joints

A

Free movement
Capsule with internal cavity:
Capsule composition: fibrous cartilage, ligaments, tendons, muscle, synovial membranes
Functions: weight bearing and movement

253
Q

Diarthoses

A

All synovial joints
Fully movable joints
Most are in the appendicular skeleton
Classified into 3 categories based on the number of axes of motion provided by each

254
Q

Movements at Synovial Joints (cont’d.)

A
Flexion/Extension
Hyperextension: abnormal extension
Dorsiflexion/Plantar flexion
Abduction/Adduction
Rotation 
Circumduction
Elevation/ Depression
Supination/Pronation
Eversion/Inversion
Protraction/Retraction
Opposition/Reposition
255
Q

The Six Types of Diarthroses (Synovial) Joints : Uniaxial

A
1. Hinge
Convex surface fits into concave surface
Flexion and extension only
Knee
Elbow

2.Pivot
Rotation in one plane
Atlas and axis (cervical spine)
Rotation of the head

256
Q

The Six Types of Diarthroses (Synovial) Joints: Biaxial

A
  1. Condyloid (ellipsoidal)
    Oval-shaped condyle fits into elliptical cavity
    Motion in two planes at right angles
    Radius and carpal bones
  2. Saddle
    Motion in two planes at right angles
    Permits opposition of the thumb
257
Q

The Six Types of Diarthroses (Synovial) Joints (Multiaxial

A
Gliding
Gliding motion
Intervertebral joints in spine
Ball-and-socket
Widest range of movement
Movement can occur in all planes and directions
Shoulder
Hip
258
Q

Bursae (cont’d.)

A

Closed sacs prevent friction between tissues
Synovial membrane lining
Subcutaneous: between skin and underlying bony processes
Subfascial: between overlying muscles
Subtendinous: between overlying tendons or bony projections

259
Q

Common Diseases, Disorders, or Illnesses of the Articular System

A
  1. Arthritis- an inflammation of the whole joint.
  2. Rheumatoid arthritis- an autoimmune connective tissue disorder resulting in severe inflammation of small joints.
    Tx: usually OTC Pain drugs; Immune-modulating drugs (if severe); Steroids (Flare Ups ONLY)
  3. Osteoarthritis (degenerative joint disease)- occurs with advancing age especially in people in their 70s. Occurs on weight-bearing joints
    Tx: usually OTC Pain drugs; weight-bearing exercises (if severe)
  4. Gout (Gouty Arthritis)- an accumulation of uric acid crystals in the joint at the base of the large toe and other joints of the feet and legs.
    Tx: usually OTC Pain drugs; Drugs to decrease uric acid