Main Concept

Question 1

Similar-to-me Effect

Answer 1

people perceive others who are similar to themselves more positively than they perceive those who are dissimilar.

Question 2

First Impressions and Primacy Effect:

Answer 2

First information we learn about a person influences more than later information does.
*difficult to overcome.You never get a second chance for a first impression

Question 3

halo effect

Answer 3

the tendency to assume that people who have one good trait also have other good traitsleads to a wrong impressions of specific traits in a person due to the overall impression

Question 4

Contrast effect

Answer 4

A candidate appears to be better or worse depending on the other candidates with which it is compared

Question 5

Leniency

Answer 5

sonal characteristic that leads an individual to consistently evaluate other people or objects in an extremely positive fashion

Question 6

Fundamental attribution error (attribution error)

Answer 6

the tendency to explain our own and other people’s behavior entirely in terms of personality traits, while underestimating the power of social influence or if they’re having a bad day

Question 7

stereotypes

Answer 7

beliefs that certain attributes are characteristic of members of particular groups

Question 8

The Self-fulfilling Prophecy

Answer 8

• a belief or expectation that an individual holds about a future event that manifests because the individual holds it
• a prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true, by the very terms of the prophecy itself, due to positive feedback between belief and behavior.

Question 9

Stereotype Threat (Steele and Aronson)

Answer 9

Studies show that negatively stereotyped groups perform worse in situations in which they fear they may conform to stereotype, and better in situations where they are not stereotyped

Question 10

Which personality trait is the least relevant (but still useful) to explain leadership success?

Answer 10

Conscientiousness

Question 11

default heuristic

Answer 11

people tend to choose the default option

Question 12

Recognition heuristic

Answer 12

Makes us more likely to believe something we’ve heard or seen many times.
- Asking people who will win the fight, they will choose the most common or famous name they’ve heard.

Question 13

Affect Heuristic

Answer 13

• type of mental shortcut in which people make decisions that are heavily influenced by their current emotions.
• If you’ve ever gone with your “gut feeling” when faced with a difficult decision, you are probably relying on the affect heuristic.

Question 14

Base rate fallacy

Answer 14

• the tendency for people to erroneously judge the likelihood of a situation by
  + not taking into account all relevant data
  + not considering prior knowledge of the probability that it will occur.
  Example: Only 6% of applicants make it into this school. But my son is brilliant! They are certainly going to accept him!

Question 15

Overconfidence Bias

Answer 15

We tend to think we know more than we actually do. We tend to be too optimistic and overestimate.

Question 16

Confirmation Bias

Answer 16

The tendency to look for evidence in support of a belief and to ignore evidence that would disprove a belief

Question 17

loss aversion

Answer 17

• the tendency to be more sensitive to potential losses than to potential gains
• expression of fear
• this explains why we tend to focus on the negative events (a setback) than the positive ones (making progress).
• We are more upset about losing $10 than we are happy finding $10. Roughly speaking, losses hurt about twice as much as gains make you feel good

Question 18

escalation of commitment

Answer 18

staying with a decision even when there is clear evidence it’s wrong (esp. when individuals feels responsible) (to show consistency)

Question 19

Hindsight Bias

Answer 19

aka I Knew It All Along Phenomenon.
The tendency to exaggerate, after learning an outcome, one’s ability to have foreseen how something turned out. - The tendency of people to overestimate their ability to have predicted an outcome that could not possibly have been predicted.
- E.g An individual notices that outside, it’s beginning to look a little bit gray. He says to himself, I bet that it’s going to rain this afternoon. When it actually does rain, the individual tells himself that he was certain that it would when he saw the clouds rolling in earlier

Question 20

Planning Fallacy

Answer 20

The tendency to underestimate how long it will take to complete a task

Question 21

Social Loafing

Answer 21

the tendency of people to exert less effort when working in groups than working alone

Question 22

Brainwriting

Answer 22

Technique in which a group is presented with a problem situation and members anonymously write down ideas, then exchange papers with others, who build on the ideas and pass them on until all members have participated.

Question 23

poor information sharing AKA shared information bias

Answer 23

the tendency for groups to spend more time discussing information that all members know and less time examining information that only a few members know

Question 24

Polarization

Answer 24

Tendency for groups to intensify group opinion, produce more extreme judgment than might be obtained by individuals separately.

Question 25

Groupthink

Answer 25

A phenomenon that occurs in decision making when group members avoid disagreement as they strive for consensus.

Question 26

To diminish biases when taking a decision as a group:

- Roles

Answer 26

• Facilitator
  Person responsible for leading or coordination a group’s work.
• Devil’s advocate
  A person who has the job of criticizing ideas to ensure that their downside are fully explored.

Question 27

Gambler’s Fallacy

Answer 27

after a series of losses, the probability of a win seems higher (it’s not)

Question 28

Job Enlargement

Answer 28

adding more tasks at the same level of responsibility and skill related to an employee’s current position

Question 29

Job Enrichment

Answer 29

Empowering workers by adding more decision-making authority to jobs.

Question 30

Over justification effect

Answer 30

When paid to do something you already like and then the pay is taken away you don’t want to do it anymore. Because they start to do it for the external reward.

Question 31

Coercive Power

Answer 31

Obtaining compliance through threatened or actual

punishment.

Question 32

Reward Power

Answer 32

ability of a manager to give or withhold tangible and intangible rewards

Question 33

legitimate power

Answer 33

results from their formal positions w/in the organization

Question 34

Expert Power

Answer 34

power that is based on special knowledge, skills and expertise that a leader possesses

Question 35

Referent Power

Answer 35

Influence based on possession by an individual of desirable resources or personal traits

Question 36

Social Proof

Answer 36

In situations where there’s some amount of uncertainty of how to behave, we will look to others to see how they behave/act.

Question 37

injuctive norm

Answer 37

how people should act, feel and think in a given situation

Question 38

descriptive norm

Answer 38

what most people usually do, feel or think

Question 39

foot-in-the-door

Answer 39

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

Question 40

Low-Ball Technique

Answer 40

influence technique based on commitment, in which one first gets a person to comply with a seemingly low-cost request and only later reveals hidden additional costs

Question 41

door in the face

Answer 41

• initial large request (rejected) followed by a smaller request (accepted)
• the requester has lowered their demands so you feel the need to reciprocate by giving in a little

Question 42

That’s-not-all Technique

Answer 42

Discounting; offering something at an inflated price & then offer discount; more likely to buy if you think you’re getting a discount

Question 43

Authority (Cialdini)

Answer 43

People will follow the lead of credible and knowledgeable

experts

Question 44

reactance

Answer 44

an unpleasant emotional response that people often experience when someone is trying to restrict their freedom

Question 45

Counterproductive work behavior (CWB)

Answer 45

Voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and threatens the well- being of the organization, its members, or both.

Question 46

negative reinforcement

Answer 46

The process of increasing a behavior in order to remove or avoid something unpleasant A receptionist is saying “good morning, Sir” or “good morning, Madam” each time a guest arrives at the reception. He does it in order to avoid reprimands from his managers.