What are the 3 types of learning - list and summarise them by defining them
- Classic conditioning learning - learning the association between events and what they signal
- Operant learning - learning by the consequences of actions
- Observational learning - imitational modeling of others (learning from others - role model)
What is classical conditioning?
- A process that creates an association between a naturally existing stimulus and a previous neutral one
Define the following:
1) Unconditioned Stimulus
2) Conditioned Stimulus
3) Unconditioned Response
4) Conditioned Response
1)
- Unconditioned Stimulus - A stimulus that elicits a reflexive or innate response (UCR) without prior learning
2)
- Conditioned Stimulus - A stimulus that, through association with a UCS, comes to elicit a conditioned response similar to the original UCR
3)
- Unconditioned Response - A reflexive or innate response that is elicited by a stimulus (UCS) without prior learning
4)
- Conditioned Response - A response elicited by a conditioned stimulus
Give a brief descriptions of the iconic study into classical conditioning
Pavlov’s Dogs
- Dogs would start salivating (UCR) when they were brought food (UCS).
- Then a bell was rung every time before the food was brought to them.
- Then they started salivating (CR) every time the bell was rung (CS)
Describe how phobias might come about - what type of learning
- Classical conditioning
- E.g. a traumatic injection - the unconditioned stimulus of the trauma and the conditioned stimulus of the needle generate an unconditioned response which is fear
- Then when you next go to a clinical setting, this is now a conditioned stimulus as it is associated with the painful injection and so you get a conditioned response which is fear
Describe the 2 factor theory for maintenance of classically conditioned fear / phobia
- You get the initial classical conditioning resulting in the phobia
- Then, you will tend to avoid the negative stimulus (the phobia) for example you will avoid injections if you have a phobia of them
- This is negative reinforcement, the removal of the stimulus reduces the fear and therefore there is negative reinforcement of the phobia behaviour
What is stimulus generalisation?
- A tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to a conditioned stimulus – it will elicit a conditioned response but in a weaker form
What is stimulus discrimination?
- The ability to respond differently to various stimuli
What is extinction?
A process in which the CS is presented repeatedly in the absence of the UCS, causing the CR to weaken and eventually disappear
What is observational learning?
- Occurs by watching and imitating actions of another person or by noting the consequences of another person’s actions
- Occurs before direct practice is allowed and to be successful it requires attention, retention, production and motivation
Describe social learning theory / vicarious reinforcement
- Essentially synonymous with observational learning - i.e. social imitation in order to learn - learning from someone else’s example
- Vicarious reinforcement - if the person you are observing is reinforced for their behaviour, you are more likely to learn by observational learning
Name and describe an experiment that demonstrated observational learning?
- Bobo Doll Experiment – children watched their parents beat up the doll and then they went on to do the same thing
What is operant conditioning?
- A process in which behaviour is learned and maintained by its consequence i.e. learning the consequences of actions
Define the following:
1) Reinforcement
2) Reinforcer
3) Punishment
4) Punisher
1)
- Reinforcement- When a response is strengthened by an outcome that follows
2)
- Reinforcer - The outcome (a stimulus or event) that increases the frequency of a response
3)
- Punishment - When a response that is weakened by an outcome that follows
4)
- Punisher - A consequence that weakens (decreases) the frequency of a response
What is operant extinction?
- The weakening and eventual disappearance of a response because it is no longer reinforced
What is meant by resistance to extinction?
- Non-reinforced behaviours persist
- Therefore if you want to get rid of a behaviour, you must not only have punishment, but also reinforcement
Fill the gaps in the table for what is defined by the labels
Define:
1) Negative Punishment
2) Positive Punishment
1)
- Occurs when a response is weakened by removal of a stimulus e.g. confiscating a phone
2)
- Occurs when a response is weakened by the presentation of a stimulus e.g. a slap on the wrist
What are the two types of reinforcement?
- Positive Reinforcement – occurs when a response is strengthened by the subsequent presentation of a reinforcer e.g. giveing a dog a treat if its behaves well
- Negative Reinforcement – occurs when a response is strengthened by the removal (or avoidance) of an aversive stimulus (e.g. if you do well in your exams you don’t have to get a summer job)
What are the four schedules of partial reinforcement?
- Fixed interval schedule – reinforcement occurs after a fixed time interval
- Variable interval schedule – the time interval varies at random around an average
- Fixed ratio schedule – reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses
- Variable ratio – reinforcement is given after a variable number of responses, all centred around an average
What is continuous reinforcement?
- Every instance of behaviour is reinforced
- This is learnt more rapidly than partial reinforcement because the association is easier to understand
- It also means that it extinguishes more rapidly than partial reinforcement because the shift to no reinforcement is sudden and easier to understand
What are the 2 basic theories / schools of thought behind the basic principle of learning? Note: I am NOT talking about the 3 different learning mechanisms / processes
But also talk about how it may relate to the 3 processes
- Overt (behavioural) vs Covert (cognitive)
- Proposed by Skinner vs Bandura
- Overt learning - you must directly experience something to learn it - leans towards classical and operant conditioning completely
- Covert - you can learn something by reflecting on possible consequences of actions or by social imitation - you do not need direct reinforcement in order to learn. It also leans on observational learning but also acknowledges the other 2 processes