Human Development and Behavior in the Social Environment Flashcards
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
A division of the peripheral nervous system that is involved in the control of visceral functions (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sweating). Consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches
Buffering Hypothesis
The hypothesis that lower susceptibility to stress, greater life satisfaction, and other positive outcomes are associated with a perception that one has adequate social support
Coercive Family Interaction Model
Proposes that children initially learn aggressive behaviors from their parents who rarely reinforce prosocial behaviors from their parents who rarely reinforce prosocial behaviors, use harsh discipline, reward their children’s aggressiveness with approval and attention and that, over time, aggressive parent-child interactions escalate. Patterson and colleagues developed a parent intervention designed to stop this coercive cycle by teaching parents child-management skills and providing them with therapy to help them cope more effectively with stress
Contact Hypothesis
Proposes that prejudice may be reduced through contact between members of the majority and minority groups as long as certain conditions are met (e.g., members of the different groups have equal status and power and are provided with opportunities that disconfirm their negative stereotypes about members of the other group)
Differential Reinforcement
Differential reinforcment (e.g., DRA, DRO, and DRI) is an operant technique that combines positive reinforcement and extinction. During a specified period of time, the individual is reinforced when he/she engages in behaviors other than the target behavior. The alternative behaviors are reinforced, while the target behavior is extinguished
Ego
As defined by Freud, the structure of the psyche that attempts to deal with reality in a practical, rational way (secondary process thinking) and that mediates the conflicting demands of the id, the superego, and reality; the “executive function” of the personality. Operates on the basis of the reality principle
FI (Fixed Interval) Schedule
In operant conditioning, an intermittent reinforcement schedule in which the subject is reinforced for each predetermined interval of time in which he/she makes at least one response. Associated with a “scallop” on the cumulative recording of the subject’s responses
Genotype Versus Phenotype
Genotype’ refers to a person’s genetic make-up; “phenotype” refers to observable characteristics, which are due to a combination of genetic and environment factors.
Hemispheric Specialization
Although the left and right hemispheres of the brain are both involved to some degree in most functions, they tend to specialize. The left (dominant) hemisphere dominates in verbal activities (e.g., spontaneous speaking and writing, memory for words and numbers); analytical, logical thought; and positive emotional states. The right (nondominant) hemisphere dominates in visual-spatial activities such as facial recognition, spatial interpretation, and memory for shapes and in negative emotions
Hyperthyroidism
A condition caused by hypersecretion of thyroxine by the thyroid gland and characterized by a speeded-up metabolism, elevated body temperature, accelerated heart rate, increased appetite with weight loss, nervousness, and insomnia
Institutional Racism
The denial or restriction of material conditions (e.g., access to health care) and access to power to members of minority groups
Latent Learning (Tolman)
Proposes that learning can occur without reinforcement and without being manifested in actual performance improvement. Tolman’s research showed that rats formed “cognitive maps” of mazes even without being reinforced for doing so.
Natural Social Networks
Consist of family, friends, neighbors, and coworkers who exchange emotional support and other resources in times of need. When effective, they make it unnecessary for an individual to turn to institutionalized services offered by social agencies. Because geographically dispersed social networks depend on linkages such as transportation, they may be vulnerable in times of crisis
Norms
The standard rules of conduct used by groups to maintain uniformity of behavior among group members. Norms may be formal (codified or written) or informal (unwritten but “understood” by group members). Norms do not govern all aspects of behavior, only those considered by the group to be important for effective group functioning. In addition, norms usually apply to behavior not to personal feelings and thoughts
P.L. 94-142 (Education For All Handicapped Children Act)
Guarantees an appropriate free public education to all children ages 3 to 21 who need special education services. An individualized educational program (IEP) must be developed for each student with a qualifying disability. The IEP is written by schoo; personnel in collaboration with the student’s parents and must provide the least restrictive environment for the student ( the environment must be as similar as possible to the regular classroom setting, taking into account the nature of the student’s disability). Over time, P.L. 94-142 has been amended, and in 1990, it was renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, or IDEA, (P.L. 101-476)
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Potential cause of intellectual disability due to an inability to metabolize the amino acid phenyalanine. Can be prevented by providing a diet low in phenylalanine
Percipitating Factor (Crisis)
The final stressful event in in a series of events that moves a person from a state of acute vulnerability into crisis. The precipitating factor is often a minor event but it can assume catastrophic proportions in the context of other stressful events and the person’s inability to use his/her usual problem-solving strategies
Protective Factors
Protective factors coexisting with risks are personal, social, and institutional factors that promote personal competence and successful development and, thereby, decrease the likelihood of a problem occurring. Examples include adequate prenatal care, active coping mechanisms, and low family stress
Racism (Levels of Racism)
Racism is a system of power and privilege that may be manifested in attitudes, behaviors, and/or institutional structures based on people’s skin color. Levels of racism include institutional racism (denial or restriction of material conditions and access to power to members of minority groups); personally mediated racism (prejudice and discrimination at the individual level); and internalized racism (acceptance by members of the stigmatized races of negative messages about their own abilities and intrinsic worth)
Rutter’s Indicators
Rutter argues that the greater the number of risk factors a baby is exposed to, the greater the risk for negative outcomes. He concludes that the following six family risk factors are particularly accurate predictors of child psychopathology: severe marital discord, low socioeconomic status, overcrowding or large family size, parental criminality, maternal psychopathology, and the placement of a child outside the home
Separation Anxiety
A normal fear response exhibited by a young child when he/she is separated from his/her mother or other primary caregiver. Begins at about 6 to 8 months, increases in intensity at about 14 to 18 months, and thereafter declines
Sociocultural Risk
Exists when a child lacks the basic material, social, and psychological necessities of life (e.g., food, water, shelter, love, and affection, medical care, educational stimulation, positive social interactions). Children (and adults) who lack all or some of these necessities are at risk for impaired development and other deficiencies. Two key sources of sociocultural risk are “social impoverishment” (lack of critical social resources in a child’s life) and “cultural impoverishment” (values that undermine a child’s healthy development)
Superego
For Freud, the structure of the psyche that represents society’s standards of right and wrong (the conscience) and the individual’s own aims and aspirations (ego ideal). Develops at age 4 or 5 years, primarily as the result of identification with one’s parents
Unconditioned Response (UR)
In classical conditioning, the response naturally elicited by the unconditioned stimulus (US) without conditioning
Accommodation (Piaget)
The modification of existing cognitive schemas to incorporate new knowledge
Bases of Social Power
Methods used to induced compliance in another person. Include coercive, reward, expert, legitimate, referent, and informational.
Case Management
A procedure used to identify, plan, access, coordinate, and monitor services from different social agencies and staff on behalf of a client. Clients needing case management services usually have multiple problems that require assistance from multiple providers, several problems that need to be addressed at the same time, and special difficulties in seeking and using help effectively
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Festinger’s theory of attitude change that proposes that inconsistencies in cognitions produce discomfort (dissonance), which motivates the individual to reduce the dissonance, often by changing his/her cognitions
Continuous Schedule of Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, providing reinforcement after each emission of the target response. Associated with rapid acquisition of a response and susceptibility to extinction
Diminished Capacity To Parent (Wallerstein)
The deterioration in the relationships between children and their parents following divorce. Following divorce, mothers and fathers spend less time with their children, are less sensitive to their children, have trouble separating their own needs from the needs of the children, and are often inconsistent, but more restrictive and demanding, in terms of control and punishment
Ego Functions
Include self-regulation and self-control; judgment; reality testing capacity; thought processes (cognitive functioning); capacity for interpersonal relationships (object relations); Integrative functioning (synthesis); and defensive functioning (ego defense mechanisms). When healthy ego functions are characteristic of a person’s longterm and current functioning (i.e., they don’t disappear under conditions of stress), they are associated with effective functioning and a subjective sense of personal well-being. Generally, a social worker evaluates a client’s ego functioning as it relates to the problem areas he/she has identified
Field Theory
Lewin’s theory of human behavior describes it as a product of interdependent factors in the person and his physical and social environment
Goodness-Of-Fit Model (Thomas And Chess)
Proposes that behavioral and adjustment outcomes are best for children when parents’ caregiving behaviors match the child’s temperament
Heteronomous Versus Autonomous Morality
Piaget distinguished between two stages of moral development. The stage of “heteronomous morality” (morality of constraint) extends from about age 7 through age 10. During this stage, children believe that rules are set by authority figures and are unalterable. When judging whether an act is “right” or “wrong” they consider whether a rule has been violated and what the consequences of the act are. Beginning at about age 11, children enter the stage of “autonomous morality” (morality of cooperation). Children in this stage view rules as being arbitrary and alterable when the people who are governed by them agree to change them. When judging an act, they focus more on the intention of the actor than on the act’s consequences
Hypoglycemia
Low blood glucose. A condition caused by excessive secretion of insulin by the pancreas and characterized by hunger, dizziness, headaches, blurred vision, palpitations, anxiety, depression, and confusion
Institutional Social Services
Social services provided by major public service systems that administer benefits such as financial assistance, housing programs, health care, or education
Law of Effect (Thorndike)
Thorndyke’s law of effect proposes that, when behaviors are followed by “satisfying consequences” they are more likely to increase or occur again
Need Hierarchy Theory
Maslow’s theory of motivation, which proposes that five basic needs are arranged in a hierarchical order such that a need higher in the hierarchy doesn’t serve as a source of motivation until all lower needs have been fulfilled. From the lowest level to the highest level, the five basic needs defined by Maslow are survival and physiological needs; safety and security needs; social (belonging) needs; esteem (ego) needs; and self-actualization needs
Object Constancy
A permanent sense of self and object (other) that develops at about age 3
Parasympathetic Division
The division of the autonomic nervous system involved in the conservation of energy and relaxation. Activation of the parasympathetic division is associated with a slowing of heart rate, lowered blood pressure, contraction of pupils, reduction of sweat gland output, and increased activity of the digestive system
Physical Abuse (Children)
The non accidental physical injury to a child caused by a parent or other caregiver. May result from an act of commission or from an act of omission (e.g., failure to protect the child). Occurs across all socioeconomic classes but a disproportionate number of known cases (i.e., reported cases, or those that come to the attention of authorities) involve low-income families. Perpetrators of child physical abuse are more often female than male; and young, low-income, single mothers with young children are at greatest risk of abusing their children.
Preconventional Morality
According to Kohlberg, the first level of moral development in which judgments of right and wrong are based on consequences and personal needs. Includes the punishment-obedience and instrumental hedonism stages. Characteristic of childhood
Protective Services
Intervention on behalf of individuals who are or may be in danger of harm from others or who are unable to care for themselves (e.g., children, the elderly, the disabled). The main activities include investigating situations in which a person is alleged to be at risk, minimizing further risk, improving current conditions, accessing resources, and facilitating placement in alternative environments when necessary
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy
(AKA Rational emotive therapy or RET) From the perspective of REBT, behavior is a chain of events -A,B, and C - where A is the external event to which the individual is exposed; B is the belief the individual has about A; and C is the emotion or behavior that results from B. In other words, an emotional or behavioral response to an external event is due to beliefs about that event rather than to the event itself. According to Ellis, the founder of REBT, the primary cause of neurosis is the continual repetition of certain common irrational beliefs and these beliefs are the appropriate target of therapy
Satiation
Satiation is the condition of being satisfied or gratified with regard to a particular reinforcer. Satiation is a problem with continuous reinforcement and with the use of primary (unconditioned) reinforcers. Satiation must be distinguished from habituation, which is the process of becoming accustomed (physiologically nonreactive) to a stimulus as the result of prolonged exposure to that stimulus
Separation-Individuation
According to Mahler, the development of object relations occurs during a developmental stage termed separation-individuation, which begins at about 4 months. Separation refers to the development of limits or the differentiation between the infant (self) and the mother; and individuation refers to the development of the infant’s ego, sense of identity, and cognitive abilities
Somatic Nervous System
Consists of sensory nerves that carry information from the body’s sense receptors to the central nervous system (CNS) and motor nerves that carry information from the CNS to the skeletal muscles. The SNS governs activities that are ordinarily considered voluntary
Superordinate Goals
Goals that can be achieved only when individuals or members of different groups work together cooperatively. These have been found useful for reducing intergroup conflict
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
In classical conditioning, the stimulus that naturally elicits the target response (unconditioned response, UR) without conditioning. In Pavlov’s original studies, meat powder was the US and salivation was the UR
Anomie
A social condition that may develop when a society or community experiences unusual stress. Is characterized by a lack societal norms, a lack of social structure, and, among individuals, apathy, isolation, and a loss of personal and social values
Behavioral Addiction
A recurring compulsion by an individual to engage in a specific activity (e.g., shopping) despite harmful consequences, as identified by the person, to his/her physical health, psychological or emotional well-being, and/or social functioning
Central Nervous System (CNS)
The nerve cells, fibers, and tissues that make up the spinal cord and brain
Conditioned Response (CR)
In classical conditioning, a response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus (CS) as the result of pairing the CS with an unconditioned stimulus. The conditioned response is similar to, but not identical to, the unconditioned response (it is usually weaker in strength or magnitude)
Cycle of Violence (Walker)
A three-stage cycle of violence that describes many abusive spousal/partner relationships. Includes tension building, acute battering incident, and loving contrition (“honeymoon”)
Down Syndrome
Autosomal disorder usually caused by the presence of an extra chromosome 21. The cause of 10 to 30 percent of all cases of mild to moderate intellectual disability. Associated with physical abnormalities including slanted, almond-shaped eyes, heart lesions, cataracts, and respiratory defects
Equity Theory
A theory of motivation that predicts that motivation (e.g., motivation to remain in a relationship) is affected by the comparison of input/outcome ratios
Functional Community
A community defined in terms of a purpose, function, or problem that needs to be addressed. Social workers, for example, belong to the welfare or human services functional community
Groupthink
Mode of group thinking in which group members’ desires for unanimity and cohesiveness override their ability to realistically appraise or determine alternative courses of action. Can be alleviated by encouraging dissent, having someone play devil’s advocate, and refraining from reaching a decision or solution too quickly
Hospitalism
A term used by Spitz to describe the syndrome found in infants who have been separated from their mothers or other primary caregiver. Symptoms include listlessness, unresponsiveness, indifference, and retarded growth
Identity Statuses (Marcia)
Marcia proposes that the achievement of an identity (including values, beliefs, and goals) involves four stages that take place primarily during adolescence and young adulthood; diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement
Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, any pattern of reinforcement that is not continuous. Includes fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interval, and variable ratio schedules. Associated with greater resistance to extinction than a continuous schedule
Maturational (Developmental) Crises
A crisis in which the origin is embedded in maturational processes - i.e., the person struggles with an anticipated transition from one life stage or role to another
Neuron
The nerve cell specialized for the conduction of electrochemical signals that carry information from one part of the body to another (e.g., from the brain to the muscles, from the sensory organs to the brain). Is made up dendrites, the soma (cell body), and an axon
Operant Conditioning
A type of learning in which behaviors are increased or decreased as the result of the consequences (reinforcements or punishments) that follow them
Participant Modeling
A technique based on observational learning theory in which a model demonstrates the desired behavior and then helps the individual to gradually imitate the modeled behavior
Positive Punishment
In operant conditioning, the application of a stimulus following a response with the goal of reducing or eliminating the response
Primary (Unconditioned) Reinforcer
A stimulus that has reinforcing value without conditioning (learning). Examples include food and water
Psychosocial Development
Erik son’s theory of personality development, which proposes that an individual faces different social crises at different points (stages) throughout the life span. These stages are trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generatively vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair
Resilience (Werner and Smith)
Longitudinal research by Werner and Smith suggests that exposure to early (prenatal and perinatal) stress may be ameliorated when the baby experiences fewer stressors following birth, exhibits good communication skills and social responsiveness, and receives stable support from a parent or other caregiver
School Social Work
Social work practice in school settings that emphasizes enabling students to learn and function in the school environment. The school social worker mobilizes all facets of a student’s life situation in an effort to foster a supportive learning environment for the student and serves as a vital link between the student’s school, home, and community. School social workers adopt a strengths-based and empowerment approach to their practice; they seek to identify and build on existing strengths within students and the social systems in which students must function
Social Agency
An organization of facility that delivers social services under the auspices of a board of directors and provides a range of social services for members of a population group that has or is vulnerable to a specific social problem
Stimulus Discrimination and Experimental Neurosis
In classical conditioning, stimulus discrimination training is used to teach an organism to respond with a CR only in the presence of certain stimuli - i.e., in the presence of the original CS. Sometimes, when discriminations are difficult, the organism will exhibit “experimental neurosis” (i.e., it will exhibit unusual behaviors such as restlessness, aggressiveness, or fear)
Symbolic (Representational) Thought
The ability to use words, actions, and other symbols to represent objects and experiences. Emerges at the end of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage of development. Also referred to as the “symbolic capacity”
VR (Variable Ratio) Schedule
In operant conditioning, an intermittent reinforcement schedule in which the reinforcer is applied after a varying number of responses (with the average number of responses being predetermined). Associated with a high, stable rate of responding and the greatest resistance to extinction
Aphasia
Impairment in the production and/or comprehension of language. Broca’s aphasia involves difficulty producing written or spoken language with little or no trouble understanding language. Wernicke’s aphasia is characterized by an inability to comprehend written or spoken language
Biopsychosocial Approach
Assumes that biophysical, psychological, and social factors all play an important role in human functioning and encourages social workers to consider and integrate a broad of range of influences when evaluating a client’s development and behavior at all levels (individual, family, community, etc.) and to examine a client’s appraisals of these influences and reactions to them in terms of physiology, emotion, cognition, and behavior
Cerebral Cortex
The outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres of the brain. Involved in higher-order sensory, emotional, motor, and intellectual activities. Divided into two hemispheres (right and left), with each containing four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal. and occipital
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
In classical conditioning, the previously neutral stimulus that, as the result of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, now elicits a conditioned response (CR)
