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Flashcards in Genetic Engineering Deck (41)
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1
Q

What is somatic cell gene therapy and what is it used for?

A

Definition – modifying the genes of a particular person without affecting the next generation
Retro viruses have been used to insert functioning genes into defective bone-marrow
Diabetes suffers can be given gene therapy to control production of insulin
Potentially, a self-destruct gene could be added to cancer cells to provide a cure

2
Q

What are the concerns with somatic cell gene therapy?

A

Very few really, except where people have misunderstood what is happening
Some people complain about this being ‘unnatural’ and doctors ‘playing God’ – just as they did when blood transfusions and organ transplants were first introduced
While it is still new, there will of course be unknown risks to some individuals and false hope to others, but the long-term consequences should easily outweigh these

3
Q

What is germ-line therapy and what are its uses?

A

Definition – making changes to the reproductive cells that will affect future generations
 Could be used to eradicate any inherited disease
 For example, Down’s Syndrome. Haemophilia, Huntingdon’s etc. etc.

4
Q

What did Bernard Hoose say about germ-line therapy?

A

Bernard Hoose said that we should first: 1. Study somatic cell therapies for years to see the indirect effects of genetic changes; 2. Study the effects of germ-line changes in animals; 3. Secure widespread public approval, as this will affect future generations as yet unborn

5
Q

What are the concerns of germ-line therapy?

A

Germ-line changes will affect large numbers of future generations, so any mistakes could have disastrous effects
You could make people susceptible to viruses that have only affected animals in the past
The risks are unknown, potentially huge and possibly irreversible
There is also the problem of discrimination of minority groups because of reduced numbers and seeing a disability as a defect – see Eugenics below
Reduces the variety in the human gene pool

6
Q

What is enhancement genetic engineering and what is it used for?

A

Definition – using gene therapy to improve a person rather than rectifying defects
It’s hard to say when a genetic trait is a defect – is correcting bad eyesight an ‘enhancement’?
Could be used to make ‘designer babies’ as in the film ‘Gattaca’

7
Q

What are the concerns of enhancement genetic engineering?

A

 This is unnecessary, therefore not worth any risk
You might argue that germ-line gene therapy restores our natural design – no such defence is possible for enhancements (although you could argue that evolution is natural)
Driven by companies trying to make money, not improve humanity
Humans are a poor judge of what constitutes ‘improvement’ (we would be design more Peter Andres and Jordans rather than Mother Teresas and Martin Luther Kings)
Could lead to more diversity in human gene pool (but probably wouldn’t)
These techniques would be available to the rich, widening the gap between rich and poor
Reduces the worth of humans and replaces God as creator

8
Q

What is Eugenic genetic engineering?

A

Definition – using germ-line therapy to create a better ‘race’ of people
Some people already think we are performing eugenics with screening for Down’s Syndrome
Eugenics has been the policy of corrupt dictatorships, but we should be wary of subtler attempts

9
Q

What are the concerns of eugenic genetic engineering?

A

Encourages discrimination of anyone not seen as ‘perfect’
Values humans for the wrong reasons (no ‘innate’ value)
Focuses on strength and intelligence
Usually misused for social, racial or political ends
Attacks basic freedoms and rights

10
Q

What are the possible advantages of eugenic genetic engineering?

A

However, if being psychotic or abusive is genetic, why not protect society by using eugenics?
Further, why make society pay for people with disabilities if their problems can be eradicated?

11
Q

How is genetic engineering used in animals?

A

Has been happening for years through selective breeding. Technology merely complicates things by allowing more transgenic breeding and a wider range of potential uses:
‘Pharming’ – used to produce drugs or vaccines:
Xenotransplants - Pigs bred to grow human organs
Agriculture – leaner meat, better yield, greater resistance to disease

12
Q

What are the concerns of genetic engineering in animals?

A

Involves embryos
Very inefficient – of 7,000 eggs injected to produce transgenic pigs, only 0.6% were successful
Unnatural – attacks God’s role as creator
Consequences are unknown and potentially very harmful
Could affect entire ecosystems by upsetting the balance
Could introduce e.g. pig viruses into humans (AIDS may have come from monkeys)
Mistakes result in great suffering for animals
Companies are now patenting cross-breeds and making money from them
Transgenic animals may be made for the wrong reasons – e.g. glow-in-the-dark rabbits
 Any developments will favour rich countries and further disadvantage developing countries

13
Q

How is genetic engineering used with GM crops?

A

As with animals, could be used to increase yields, increase resistance to disease and pests and make some plants immune to certain artificial pesticides and herbicides

14
Q

What are the advantages with GM crops?

A

Could improve environment, but is driven by profit not concern for the environment
Could provide an answer to world hunger (Kenyan researchers developed a GM sweet potato with an 80% improvement in yield)

15
Q

What are the concerns with GM crops?

A

Effects unknown – environmental, health etc.
Removes choice, as GM seeds travel over to non-GM crops or even weeds (making them stronger!)
it costs millions to develop these crops, so rich countries will do it first
Traditional farming re-uses seeds, but biotech companies charge on a yearly basis
Developing countries are going it alone, but their safety tests aren’t as thorough

16
Q

What are the potential benefits of embryo cloning?

A
understand and prevent miscarriages
	more effective contraceptives
	prevent growth of cancer
	test for inherited diseases
	increases success rate for IVF
	potential sibling donors frozen
	twins rather than two pregnancies
17
Q

What are the moral issues with embryo cloning?

A
issues raised by PGD
	eugenics
	value of embryo
	discrimination
‘mass production’ of:
	soldiers
	workers
	ruling class
18
Q

What are the potential uses of therapeutic cloning?

A
Organ transplants
	no rejection of transplant
	no pain or risk to ‘donor’
	no waiting lists
	organs would be brand new
	lives saved
Cure for Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s and thousands of other disorders
Treatment for diabetes, paralysis and countless other conditions
19
Q

What are the concerns with therapeutic cloning?

A

Where can you get stem cells from?
Foreign DNA (greater chances of rejection and need for drugs)
embryos created in infertility treatment
eggs mixed with donated sperm
germ cells or organs of aborted foetuses
Perfect match
cell nuclear transplant
bone marrow – limited usefulness
‘mature adult tissue cells’ – speculative
umbilical cord
Cell nuclear transplant seems the best way forward, but…An embryo is a person, however created – this is murder. Others say it’s a pre-embryo and has a reduced status
There are lots of technical problems that mean it doesn’t work yet
Harvesting eggs is painful, costly and unreliable
Is it right to use non-human eggs?

20
Q

What are the possible uses of reproductive cloning?

A

Ill/dead child
Einstein/MLK/Beckham
Spare body parts
Young self (eternal life?)

21
Q

What is the issue with cloning being unnatural?

A

No random element that is usually present at conception
Death is usually the end for a person
Threatens the uniqueness of the individual
IVF issues (because of how pregnancy is created)

22
Q

Why would the clone not be the same as the original?

A

Social context is different
Upbringing will vary
Experiences contribute to psychological development
Personality is not genetically determined

23
Q

What is the issue with freedom and individuality with cloning?

A

The cloned person should be free to determine his/her own future
The manipulation of a clone to meet some other need is wrong
Constant comparisons to the original will be a pressure
A clone can’t ‘be themselves’ as they will always be treated like a copy
What name would they take, and who would be their parent/s and family?

24
Q

What are the issues with rights when it comes to cloning?

A

What rights would a clone have?
Would they be legally classed as a child of the original or his/her sibling?
What would stop a clone from committing crimes and pretending to be the original?

25
Q

What is the issue with health risks and cloning?

A

Dolly had arthritis and died young
A large percentage of cloned animal foetuses have severe ‘abnormalities’
There is no way of knowing the long-term effects on the clone

26
Q

What happened in the case study of Dolly the sheep?

A

She was the first mammal to ever have been cloned. Much controversy surrounded every aspect of Dolly’s life, particularly her premature aging. It appears that she was genetically six years old when she was born, so got arthritis at a very early age and died young. The cloning of a sheep, and the problems it raised, makes any talk of developing a similar sort of technique in humans merely theoretical at this stage - scientists realise they need to refine the procedure before they would be allowed to try this with humans.

27
Q

How would utilitarianism regard GM crops?

A

Utilitarianism looks at the benefits and risks associated with genetics. One of the problems with this sort of approach is that it is impossible to know the effects of, say, GM crops.The hedonic calculus allows us to weigh up extent and certainty, but relies on us having a good idea what the extent will be and how likely the problems are to occur.

28
Q

How would Utilitarianism regard genetic engineering of animals?

A

Bentham considers all sentient creatures, and therefore may have problems with using animals for pharmaceuticals or to grow human organs. Singer would want to consider the interests of animals alongside humans. If it were simply a case of a single pig dying to save a human life, Singer is likely to value the human far more than the pig, as the human has far more and greater interests. However, many of these technologies involve harming a much larger number of animals, which would be a concern for Singer.

29
Q

What is Kantian ethics view on embryonic cloning and experimentation?

A

Could you will that embryonic stem-cell research became a universal law? If it was, it could mean that you had been experimented on instead of being implanted. This is contrary to the will - an imperfect duty. Some Kantians disagree, as they do not see the embryo as a ‘potential person’ yet.

30
Q

What is the view of Kantian ethics on the genetic engineering of animals?

A

Kant would be happy with xenotransplantation (using animals to grow organs for humans) as long as there were no risks to humans. Animals have no intrinsic value for Kant as they are not rational. Put another way, to ask “Would you will that you be used to grow organs for humans if you were a pig?” would make no sense as pigs aren’t capable of willing this at all.

31
Q

How does Natural Law decide whether genetic engineering is acceptable?

A

Genetic Engineering at first seems to run contrary to Natural Law. Natural Law is based on the principle that God designed the world. Genetic Engineering involves tampering with or changing the way the world is. However, all of medicine involves changing the way the world is in some way. The real question is whether a therapy or procedure is intended to allow an organ or part of the body to fulfil its purpose, or to carry out some other purpose.

32
Q

How would Natural law considered somatic cell therapy?

A

Natural Law would therefore be against enhancement genetic engineering, but may be happy with somatic-cell therapies that corrected disorders.

33
Q

How would Natural Law view genetic engineering on animals?

A

Natural Law may be against using animals to produce pharmaceuticals or to grow organs for transplant as this runs contrary to their God-given purpose. This isn’t clear cut. Most Natural Law theologians tend to see animals as lower beings and accept that they may be used to, for example, feed humans. The justification may be that one of the primary precepts of Aquinas’ Natural Law Theory is to protect and preserve human life, in which case ‘pharming’ and xenotransplantation would be seen as acceptable.

34
Q

How would Natural Law view GM crops?

A

Natural Law may well support GM Foods. We mustn’t get confused between natural and artificial with this theory. Natural Law has no problem with artificial limbs, synthetic fibres etc. as they help humans fulfil their purpose. The real question is, will GM food be better at feeding the world? Potentially, modifying food to increase yield could reduce costs, feeding more people in Africa and reducing human suffering. The concerns from a Natural Law point of view would therefore be the unknown effects (will it harm humans - contrary to one of the primary precepts), and the uneven distribution of knowledge (already western companies are patenting genes and charging developing countries to use them).

35
Q

How would situation ethics view genetic engineering on animals?

A

It is a theory concerned with humans ( Personalism). Therefore situationists would be more than happy to use animals to grow organs or pharmaceuticals. The real question with these therapies is: is it Pragmatic ? Do xenotransplantation and ‘pharming’ work? There is good evidence to suggest they do work very successfully, so Situation Ethics would support them.

36
Q

How would situation ethics view genetic engineering on humans?

A

Gene therapies that are somatic would doubtless be seen as a loving alternative to letting someone suffer and die. Germ-line therapies are more problematic, as they may affect many future generations, and Situation Ethics is teleological, concerned with outcomes. However, situation ethics is Relativist. It may be too risky as a general rule to make changes to a germ-line, but situation ethics is happy to ‘throw away [its] principles and do the right thing’ - the rules are only guidelines and the right course of action is relative to the particular circumstances.

37
Q

How would situation ethics view enhancement gene therapy?

A

A situationist is likely to argue that the money could be better spent on those who are sick (this would certainly be more loving), but there are no absolutes here. In special individual cases, the most loving thing to do may be enhancement gene therapy.

38
Q

How would virtue ethics view genetic engineering?

A

Virtue Ethics is never easy to apply to concrete, complex ethical dilemmas. Ethicists, and doctors, should be habitually kind, courageous, temperate etc., which may lead to right decisions made in difficult cases. Aristotle also prized wisdom above all else, and informed debate may well be helpful in some of these very difficult areas. Justice was one of the cardinal virtues, so new therapies would have to be fair - available to the wealthy and poor alike, rather than expensive enhancement therapies for those with money while the poor die of treatable conditions due to lack of funding.

39
Q

How would MacIntyre view genetic engineering?

A

MacIntyre starts by looking at the context. MacIntyre may come to the conclusion that xenotransplantation would work in America and Europe, but would not be appropriate for countries with predominantly pagan belief systems where people may feel they have spirits from animals in them if the organ grew in an animal. MacIntyre says you must understand the context, and that what may be valued in one society may not be in another.

40
Q

What is the churches view on cloning?

A

Pointing out that it is “impossible to duplicate the soul,” the Academy lists the ethical reasons that make cloning of humans completely unacceptable: the radical manipulation of human procreation; the exploitation of women in breeding; the industrial approach to production of human beings; the perverse complication of relations between family members; and the destruction of living embryos which is always a factor in cloning process. The Pontifical Academy added that along with an absolute ban on the production of human children by cloning, society should also ban “the cloning of a fetal embryo” for experimental purposes.
“The Church occupies herself with the dignity of man, the defense of life.” And in that realm, he emphasized, “it is not permissible to manipulate God’s will.”

41
Q

When is the church okay with genetic engineering?

A

“If the research allows the elimination of hunger or certain diseases, that is welcome,” conceded Cardinal Ratzinger– although he pointed out that to date there is no assurance of such progress. But then he drew a clear line: “The sanctity of life is untouchable.”