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Human physiology > gas transport and control of breathing > Flashcards

gas transport and control of breathing Flashcards

1
Q

two ways oxygen is transported

A

haemaglobin

disolved in blood plasma, small perentage

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2
Q

how much can each haemoglobin carry?

A

4 oxygen molecules

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3
Q

what is cooperative binding?

A

each time one oxygen binds to haemoglobin it makes it easier for the others to bind also

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4
Q

Hb with oxygen

A

oxyhaemoglobin

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5
Q

Hb without oxygen

A

deoxyheamoglobin

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6
Q

whats the structure of haemoglobin

A

haem group within a globin chain
iron atom in centre
2 alpha chains, 2 beta chains

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7
Q

how can the affinity of haemglobin be increased?

A

increase pH
decrease CO2 conc
decrease body temp

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8
Q

how can the affinity of haemglobin be decreased

A

decreased pH
increased CO2
increased body temp
increase in 2,3-DGP synthesis

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9
Q

what is an oxygen dissociation curve?

A

the relationship between oxygen carried in hB and alveolar oxygen

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10
Q

what does the flat top of the cruve show?

A

plateau region

oxygen binds in the lungs

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11
Q

how much oxygen is released into tissues?

A

25%

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12
Q

in highly active tissues where is the curve?

A 
shifted to the RIGHT
more oxygen released
low pH, acidic
high temp
more CO2
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13
Q

in resting tissue what happens to the curve?

A 
shifted to the LEFT
decreased oxygen release
low temp
low Co2
alkaline pH, high
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14
Q

what is the shifting of the dissociation curve called?

A

Bohr effect

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15
Q

what causes the borh effect?

A

increase of CO2 from active tissues lowers the pH triggers an incerase in oxygen release
curve moves to the right

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16
Q

what happens to the oxygen dissocation curve in anaemia?

A

lower conc of HB
100% saturated but less of it so cant carry as much
oxygen levels lower

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17
Q

three ways carbon dioxide is transprted

A

disolved in plasma as gas
attached to globin chains in Hb
bicarbonate

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18
Q

describe the passage of carbon dioxide

A

enters RBC
carbonic anhydrase increases rate water and CO2 combining to make bicarbonate
carbonic acid dissocates
H proton left
bicarbonate leaves RBC in exchange for cl ion
water moves into RBC, more swollen now
lots f protons, low ph

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19
Q

how are the muscle associated with ventilation controlled?

A

cant contract on their own and require continuous stimulationfrom the CNS

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20
Q

where do signals for ventilation come from?

A

respiratory centre which has neurnes located in the pons and medulla

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21
Q

what are the respiratory centres

A

dorsal and ventral

apneustic and pneumotaxic

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22
Q

what is the dorsal and ventral respiratory centre?

A

medulla

inspiratory and expiratory centres

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23
Q

what is the apneustic and pneumotaxic centres?

A

pons

involved in pacemaking the lumg

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24
Q

what role does the dorsal group have

A

neurones send signals to the diaphram through the phrenic nerve to control inspiration

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25
Q

what role does the ventral group have

A

involved in both inspiration and expiration

controls the intercostals and abdominal muscles

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26
Q

what role does the apneusic group have

A

promotes inspiration

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27
Q

what role does the pneumotoxic group have?

A

turns off apneustic centre allowing the expiration

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28
Q

what keeps respiratory rhythm?

A

neurones firing and inhibiting others and vice verse keeping a pace

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29
Q

during exercise what had more activity

A

phrenic and intercostal nerves

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30
Q

during quiet breathing wha happens with nerves

A

no intercostal nerve
no effort
no tension in muscles

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31
Q

what are the two systms regulating breathing

A

voluntary and automatic

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32
Q

how does the voluntay system control breathing

A

signals in premotor and motor cortext instruct the respiratory centre allowing us to regulate it outselves
sign, speak, hold breath etc

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33
Q

how does the automatic system control breathing>

A

mechanical and chemical receptors

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34
Q

how do chemoreceptors monitor breathing

A

monitor blood oxyge, carbon dioxide, pH

signl and adjust ventilation

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35
Q

how do mechanoreceptors monitor breathing

A

ense stretching and irritants in the lungs and relays information to respiratory centres

36
Q

where are central chemoreceptrs found?

A

close to the medulla

37
Q

how do chemoreceptrs work?

A

sense partial pressures of CO2

monitor hydrogen ions in spinal flui

38
Q

how do the chemireceptors work to signal to increasing breathing rate?

A

hydrogen ions cant get through blood brain barrier
carbon dioxide can.
no buffering in this spina fluid
hydrogen ions get in through the CO2 then turned int bicarbonate
hydrogen ions reach the receptors
causes the need to breath
slow but effective

39
Q

where are peripheral chemireceptors found?

A

arotic branch

carotid bodies

40
Q

how do carotid bodies act as chemoreceptors

A

monitor the oxygen conc mainly and sometimes Co2 also
signal the respiratory centre to increase ventilation when partial pressure of oxygen drops belw 60mmhg
very fast

41
Q

where are mechanoreceptors found?

A

lung and chest wall

42
Q

how do mechanoreceptors monitor stretch

A

when we breathe in signals are send
more stretching means stronger signals
stops over streching of the lungs
they promote expiration and stop damage

43
Q

what do mechanoreceptors do for irritants

A

stimulated by gasses, dust smoke. cold air

constrict the bronchioles and protect the airways and lungs

44
Q

what is a juxtacapillary?

A

J-receptors
in alvelar walls
sense the fluid in alveoli
induce rapid shallow brething to clean fluid

45
Q

when are juxacapillaries used?

A

pneumonia and diseases

46
Q

what is dysponea

A

feeling of breathlessness

47
Q

what is a abstructive disease

A

expiration defects

48
Q

whats a resitrcitve diease

A

hard to breathe in

49
Q

what type of disease is asthma?

A

obstructive

50
Q

what causesastham

A

allergens in the environment

causes sudden dyspnea and difficulty breathing

51
Q

what happens during asthma attack?

A

FRC and RV increased
FEV and peak flow reduced
chronic fimflmtion of the bronchi

52
Q

what type of disease is emphysema

A

obstructive

53
Q

what causes emphysema

A

smoking

neurphils invade alveli releasing enymes to destroy the lining

54
Q

what happens in emphyema

A 
supporting connetive tissue destroyed
large aveoli
more dead space
chronic inflmation
cili dont work
inefficient gas exchange
55
Q

what lung function tests are done for emphysema

A

FEV and peak flow are reduced

56
Q

what type of disease is pulmonary fibrosis

A

restrictive

57
Q

what is pulmonary fibrosis

A

excessive fibrous tissue in the lungs
large alveoli with scars
oxygen has long distances to travel

58
Q

what does pulmonary fbrosis cause/ theeffects of it

A

less oxygen in blood
stiff lungs
hard to inhale
chronic breathlessness

59
Q

what causes pulmonary fibrosis?

A

idiopathic

maybe overactive imune system secreting desructive enzymes to destroy lining

60
Q

what type of diseae is COPD

A

obstructive

61
Q

what is COPD

A

combination of emphysema and chronic bhrnchitis

62
Q

what des COPD cause?

A

reduced peak flow and FEV
impaired diffusion reduced airway diameter
lung function generally reduced

63
Q

what is obstructive sleep apnoea

A

temporary ceasing of breathing during sleep

64
Q

what causes sleep apnoea

A

obstruction is physical caused by muscles obstructing the airways

65
Q

what happens during sleep apnoea

A

oxygen decreases and carbn dioxide inceased

muscles can sometimes collapse due to lack to tone

66
Q

what overcomes the obstruction in sleep apnoea?

A

stimulation to breathe increases in the intrathroaciic pressure to overcome obstruction

67
Q

what is central sleep apnoea?

A

respiratory centres cant initiate breathing

no conscous ability while asleep

68
Q

what sort of breathing happens during central sleep apnoea

A

Cheyne-stokes sleep

slow shallow breathing that gradully increased before apnoea

69
Q

what changes during exercise?

A

CO rises
increased stroke volume and HR
more blood to muscles
heart empties better

70
Q

what triigers an increase in CO

A

increse in sympatetic activiy and decrease in parasympatetic
resting systems dont need much output so vessels shut off
more blood sent to musces

71
Q

how is muscle perfusion increased in exercise

A

increase in metabolites and adrenaline increased arteriolar dilation increased muscle perfusion

72
Q

at rest how much of the cardiac output goes to the muscles

A

5L

73
Q

to which organ does blood flow change during exercise?

A

gut and renal flow

74
Q

what is steady state?

A

during exercise ventilation is increased until a steady state is reached
this is when oxygen delivery matches demand

75
Q

when exercise starts what happens in the body

A

a partial pressure of oxygen and carbon idoxide in venous blood chnge
changes in chemoreceptor signalling
SV and HR increase due to higher brain signals
increase in ventilation due to neural and humoral factors
beats with more force and faster

76
Q

what happens to reach a steady state?

A

central effects in respiration and cardiac are reinforced from exercising limbs
ventilation rises
peripheral chemoreceptors help
movement of limbs detected and gives and response

77
Q

what happens during a steady state

A

ventilation and CO meet needs of the body!
nothing changed now
maintained by K conc
limb movement and metabolism maintains everything

78
Q

regular training will…

A 
lower resting HR
increase heart size
thicker ventricles
natural hypertrophy
end diastolic volume and SV increased
higher maximal CO
bone remodels for higher strength
more capillary density for more blood supply
79
Q

what effects does training have on the respiratory system

A 
modest increase in vital capactiy
increased minute ventiltion
pulmonary dffuion more efficient
new capillaries formed
alveoli more efficient now
muscles higher strength
muscle density higher
80
Q

what changes can happen in elite swimmers?

A

chest cavity increases in size and can gain more alveoli/larger ones
only swimmers this happens

81
Q

what effects does altitude have?

A 
sickness
brain starved of oxygen
not able to inhale as much oxygen as before
respiration goes down
breathe less and with less oygen
82
Q

consequences of attitude

A

central sleep apnoea

pulmonary odemea: lack of pressure and fluid accumulates on the lungs

83
Q

what effects are there for chronic altitude

A

chronic hypoxia
double the content of Hb and RBCs
increase: CO, minute volume, tissue vascularisation

84
Q

what effects does deep diving have on the respiratory system?

A

bradychardia: redirection of blood to brain and a lowered heart rate

85
Q

what is is bad to do before diving?

A

hyperventilation to store oxygen as it can lead to cerebral hypoxia and drowning
it removes carbon dioxide from the blood but it cant be more saturated

86
Q

what adaptations do mammals have that dive often?

A

low heart rates and blood that can be easily diverted to key organs

Human physiology (21 decks)

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