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A-level Psychology > G - Atypical gender development > Flashcards

G - Atypical gender development Flashcards

1
Q

Gender dysphoria

A

Chronic distress due to perception of sex and gender mismatch - this excludes intersex conditions, which are biologically verifiable.

A psychiatric condition listed in the DSM-V. Individuals experience a sense of dysphoria (confusion) about their gender because they have strong, persistent feelings of identification with the opposite gender and discomfort with their own. It is only diagnosed where there is no physical intersex condition.

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2
Q

Where does gender identity disorder (GID) first appear?

A

In DSM-III (1980).

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3
Q

What is an issue of gender identity disorder?

A

Culture bias is identified - Samoan culture has three genders (extra feminine male category) and none are at risk of any psychological disorder.

Social construct of gender in Western countries changes over time.

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4
Q

What does the DSM-V (2013) replace GID with?

A

The term Gender Dysphoria (spectrum)

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5
Q

What are the biological explanations of gender dysphoria?

A
  • Transexual gene
  • The brian-sex theory
  • Phantom limb and cross-wiring
  • Environmental effects (pesticides)
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6
Q

Explain the transexual gene as a biological explanation of gender dysphoria

A

Hare et al. (2009) looked at the DNA of 112 M–>F transexuals.

  • Found they were more likely to have a longer version of the androgen receptor gene than in ‘normal’ sample.
  • The effect of this abnormality is reduced action of the male sex hormone testosterone, and this may have an effect on gender development in the womb (e.g. under-masculinising the brain).
  • Transexuals brain may be much less masculine than average, if the threshold level for masculine development is never reached.
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7
Q

What are the effects of the transgender gene on M–>F transexuals?

A
  • Androgen receptor gene longer.
  • This difference reduces the ability of testosterone to cause changes in development.
  • Transexuals brain may be much less masculine than average, if the threshold level for masculine development is never reached.
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8
Q

Explain how your fingers link to testosterone levels

A

Longer ring finger than index finger = more testosterone.

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9
Q

What is the brain-sex theory based on?

A

The fact that male and female brains are different and perhaps transsexuals’ brains do not match their genetic sex.

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10
Q

Explain what has been found in the brain-sex theory as a biological explanation of gender dysphoria

A

BSTc (bed nucleus of stria terminalis) is twice the size in straight men than women and contains twice the number of neurons.

  • It integrates info from across the limbic system.
  • The info is used to monitor stress-readiness levels (allostatic valence).

BSTc size correlates with preferred sex, not biological sex.
- Dutch studies (Zhou et al., 1995 and Kruijver et al., 2000) found that the number of neurons in the BSTc (and its size) of M–>F transexuals was similar to that of the female average and the number of neurons in/ the size of the BSTc in F–>M transexuals is usually within the typical male range.

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11
Q

What part of the brain is the brain-sex theory related to?

A

The BSTc (bed of stria terminalis).

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12
Q

What differs about the BSTc in men and women?

A

BSTc (bed nucleus of stria terminalis) is twice the size in straight men than women and contains twice the number of neurons.

  • It integrates info from across the limbic system.
  • The info is used to monitor stress-readiness levels (allostatic valence).
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13
Q

Explain how BSTc size correlates with preferred sex

A

BSTc size correlates with preferred sex, not biological sex.
- Dutch studies (Zhou et al., 1995 and Kruijver et al., 2000) found that the number of neurons in the BSTc (and its size) of M–>F transexuals was similar to that of the female average and the number of neurons in/ the size of the BSTc in F–>M transexuals is usually within the typical male range.

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14
Q

What does size of the BSTc correlate with?

A

Preferred sex not biological sex.

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15
Q

What does the diathesis stress and gender link say the very few stable behavioural difference between men and women are?

A
  • Brains are not 100% masculine or 100% feminine.
  • Male brains are larger than female brains.
  • Females have a proportionally thicker cortex and more grey matter/less white matter when compared with men.
  • Men have larger ventricles (glymphatic system).
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16
Q

What is different about the amount of grey and white matter between men and women?

A

Females have a proportionally thicker cortex and more grey matter/less white matter when compared with men.

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17
Q

Which gender has a larger glymphatic system/larger ventricles?

A

Men

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18
Q

Which gender has the largest brain?

A

Men

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19
Q

Are brain either 100% masculine or 100% feminine?

A

No

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20
Q

What does the diathesis-stress theory as a biological explanation of gender dysphoria say about the effects of stress on the brain?

A

Stress can change the sex of brain regions in less than 15 minutes.

  • Typical female neurons have more dendritic spines than male neurons (important for firing/processing speed).
  • After 15 mins of stress, researchers found a reversal in this pattern in the rat hippocampus.
  • Therefore, physical structure of brain cells can’t determine sex - you need to know whether there was high or low stress.
  • Many environmental factors have been shown to change the default sex of developing brain regions (e.g. all stages of life, size of social group, level of environmental stimulation).
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21
Q

What are the biological explanations of gender dysphoria?

A

Transsexual gene
The brain-sex theory
Phantom limb and cross-wiring
Environmental effects - pesticides

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22
Q

What are the social explanations of gender dysphoria?

A

Mental illness
Mother-son relationships
Father-daughter relationships

23
Q

What study found the transsexual gene?

A

Hare et al., 2009

24
Q

Explain Hare et al. study into the transsexual gene

A

Looked at the DNA of 112 MtF transsexuals and found they were more likely to have a longer version of the androgen receptor gene than in a ‘normal’ sample.

Te effect of this abnormality is reduced action of the male sex hormone testosterone, and this may have an effect n gender development in the womb (e.g. under-masculinising the brain).

25
Q

What is the effect of the transsexual gene?

A

Reduced action of the male sex hormone testosterone, and this may have an effect n gender development in the womb (e.g. under-masculinising the brain).

26
Q

What is the brain-sex theory based on?

A

Based on the fact that male and female brains are different and perhaps transsexuals’ brains do not match their genetic ‘sex’.

27
Q

What region of the brain is studied in the brain-sex theory?

A

The BSTc.

28
Q

What dos BSTc stand for?

A

Bed nucleus of the stria terminalis.

29
Q

Where is the BSTc located?

A

In the thalamus.

30
Q

Describe the size of the BSTc in heterosexual men compared to in heterosexual women.

A

Twice the size in heterosexual men than women and contains twice the number of neurons.

31
Q

What explanation is offered for gender dysphoria from the brain-sex theory?

A

The size of the BSTc correlates with preferred sex rather than biological sex.

32
Q

What studies were done on the BSTc and what did they find?

A

To Dutch studies (Zhou et al., 1995; Kruijver et al., 2000) found that the number of neurons in the BSTc of MtF transsexuals was similar to that of the females. By contrast, the number of neurons in a FtM transsexual was found to be in the male range.

33
Q

Who suggested that gender dysphoria is an innate form of phantom limb syndrome?

A

Ramachandran (2008)

34
Q

What did Ramachandran (2008) say gender dysphoria was a form of?

A

Is an innate form of phantom limb syndrome.

35
Q

What can happen everytime a mother experiences stress during pregnancy and what does this mean?

A

Some areas of the baby’s developing brain will change their sex characteristics.

This means we’re all born with a ‘mosaic’ of brain gender regions –> this will change throughout your life –> all brains are intersex or androgynous.

36
Q

What do people who have a limb amputated often report?

A

Often report they feel as if the limb was still there, for example they feel itches in the limb or even try to pick things up with the missing limb.

37
Q

What did Ramachandran (2008) say that phantom limb syndrome was due to?

A

Plasticity and cross-wiring after injury.

38
Q

What did Ramachandran et al. (1995) demonstrate that phantom limb syndrome is caused by?

A

The brain is ‘cross-wired’. The part of the brain that received input from the amputated limb is taken over by a different part of the body, such as the cheek.

Neighbouring networks can acquire functions of severed networks.

39
Q

What did Ramachandran and McGeoch (2007) propose about the link between the brain and gender dysphoria?

A

Suggest sex organs have specific brain locations that are innately hard-wired and they are the opposite to the person’s biological sex.

Such cross-wiring can lead to some females feeling like they should have a penis (phantom penis) - claimed to be experienced by 2/3 of F–>M transexuals. This includes phantom erections and leads to loss of feeling in female genitals.

Some males feel like they should not have a penis.

40
Q

What is an external biological possibility for causing gender dysphoria?

A

Environmental pollution - pesticides.

41
Q

What is DDT?

A

A banned pesticide in the US and UK.

42
Q

What was DDT banned in the US and UK?

A

From 1972

43
Q

Where is DDT still used?

A

In developing countries (India mostly).

44
Q

What does DDT contain?

A

Oestrogen.

45
Q

What does exposure to DDT mean happens as a result?

A

Means that males are prenatally exposed to unduly high levels of these female hormones causing a mismatch between genetic sex and hormone influences.

46
Q

What did Vreugdenhil et al. (2002) found about DDT and male exposure to oestrogen?

A

Found that boys born to mothers who were exposed to dioxins (which can promote oestrogen) displayed feminised play.

47
Q

In terms of biology/chemicals in the body, what does DDT cause?

A

Causes sodium ion channels to open, resulting in nerve spasms and death in insects.

48
Q

Is DDT deadly?

A

Not to most animals, but does contain oestrogen that can reach the bloodstream in exposed humans.

49
Q

What has been found about the link between mental illness and gender dysphoria?

A

Proposed that gender dysphoria is related to mental illness, which in turn is linked to some childhood trauma or maladaptive upbringing.

50
Q

Explain Coates et al.’s (1991) study on the link between mental illness and gender dysphoria

A
  • Produced a case study of a boy who developed gender dysphoria, proposing that this was a defensive reaction to the boy’s mother’s depression following an abortion.
  • The trauma occurred when the boy was 3, a time in development when a child is particularly sensitive to gender issues (phallic/gender stability stage).
  • They suggest that the trauma may have lead to a cross-gender fantasy as a means of resolving the ensuing anxiety (developed GID as a way to understand the mother, becoming more like her). This is a defence mechanism.
51
Q

What did Stoller (1975) propose about the link between gender dysphoria and mother-son relationships?

A

Proposed that gender dysphoria results from parental attitudes.

52
Q

How did Stoller (1975) come up with the idea that gender dysphoria results from parental attitudes?

A

In clinical interviews with individuals diagnosed with gender dysphoria, Stoller observed that they displayed overly close and enmeshed mother-son relationships. This would be likely to lead to greater female identification and confused gender identity.

Boundaries were very blurred. These boys may have over-identified with their mother. Identification with the wrong model may lead to confused identity.

53
Q

What did Zucker (2004) suggest about the link between gender dysphoria and father-daughter relationships?

A

In the case of F–>M transsexuals, Zucker (2004) has suggested that females identify as males because of severe paternal rejection in early childhood.

This rejection results in over-identification with the father and increased imitation of male behaviours leads to confused identity.

Unconsciously, they think that, if they became males, they might gain acceptance from their father.

A-level Psychology (55 decks)

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