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1
Q

structures

A

anatomy

2
Q

functions

A

physiology

3
Q

what is the relationship between anatomy and physiology

A

difficult to separate; form follows function

4
Q

levels of organization

A
chemical (atoms- molecules)
cellular (skin cells)
tissue (epith)
organ (kidney)
organ system (digestive)
organism (human)
5
Q

basic unit of life

A

cells

6
Q

the existence of a stable internal environment

A

homeostasis

7
Q

adjustment of physiological systems to preserve homeostasis

A

homeostatic regulation

8
Q

what will happen if homeostasis is not preserved

A

illness or death

9
Q

receives signals about changes in internal environment that causes response to reverse these changes back to the normal range

A

negative feedback ex. thermostat

10
Q

cells and cell products organized into layers of groups that perform a relatively limited number of fxs

A

tissues

11
Q

study of tissues

A

histology

12
Q

cover internal and external surfaces; forms glands

A

epith

13
Q

fill internal spaces and provide support for other tissues

A

connective

14
Q

provide movement via contractions

A

muscle

15
Q

conduct electrical impulses

A

neural

16
Q

2 types of cell arrangements found in epith

A

microvilli and cillia

17
Q

increases surface area for increase absorption and secretion

A

microvilli

18
Q

sweep substances along epith surface

A

cilia

19
Q

what is unique about transitional epith

A

transitions from thick to thin and back again as it stretches and recoils

20
Q

where is transitional epith found

A

urinary bladder

21
Q

collections of cells

A

glands

22
Q

secretes hormones directly into interstitial fluid and/or blood

A

endocrine ex. pancreas

23
Q

release secretions onto epith surfaces via ducts

A

exocrine ex. tears

24
Q

function of mucus

A

lubrication

25
Q

one unicellular exocrine gland? what does it secrete

A

mucous (goblet) cells; secretes mucins that w h2o forms mucus

26
Q

most common conn tissue cell; make components of ground substances and fibers

A

fibroblasts

27
Q

engulf pathogens and damaged cells

A

macrophages

28
Q

fat cells

A

adipocytes

29
Q

stem cells to divide and differentiate into other conn tissue cells

A

mesenchymal cells

30
Q

3 types of cartilage

A

hyaline
elastic
fibro

31
Q

physical barriers; line or cover body surfaces

A

membranes

32
Q

specialized for contraction and movement

A

muscle tissues

33
Q

striated voluntary; produce gross body movements

A

skeletal

34
Q

striated involuntary ; only in heart

A

cardiac

35
Q

non striated involuntary ; around hollow organs

A

smooth

36
Q

specialized for conduction of electrical impulses

A

neural tissue

37
Q

how is skeletal muscle an organ

A

skeletal muscle tissue
conn tissue
nerves
blood vessels

38
Q
produce skeletal movement 
maintain posture and body position 
support soft tissues
guard entrance and exits
maintain body temp
store nutrient reserves
A

fx of skeletal muscular system

39
Q

bundle of fascicles

A

muscle fibers

40
Q

continuation of collagen fibers of conn tissue coverings beyond end of muscle; cordlike

A

tendon

41
Q

similar to tendon but is a broad sheet of ct that attaches a broad, flat muscle to another muscle or to several bones

A

aponeurosis

42
Q

muscle fibers cell membrane

A

sarcolemma

43
Q

cytoplasm

A

sarcoplasm

44
Q

tubes continuous with sarcolemma and contain extracellular fluid and form passages ways thru the muscle fiber

A

t tubules

45
Q

tubular network that cover each myofibril

A

sarcoplasmic reticulum

46
Q

2 kinds of protein filaments found in myofibrils.

A

actin and myosin

47
Q

thin filaments

A

actin

48
Q

thick filaments

A

myosin

49
Q

thin filaments slide toward center of sarcomere; alongside the thick filaments

A

sliding filament theory

50
Q

all the muscle fibers controlled by one motor neuron

A

motor unit

51
Q

what determines the size of the motor unit

A

how fine the control of movement can be

52
Q

Which of these have all-or-none contractions? muscle fiber, motor unit, entire muscle?

A

muscle fiber

53
Q

if it contracts at all it will contract completely

A

all or none

54
Q

muscle shorten when contracted

A

isotonic

55
Q

muscle contracts but doesn’t change length

A

isometric

56
Q

reuqires o2

A

aerobic metabolism

57
Q

occurs in mitochondria

A

aerobic

58
Q

occurs in sarcoplasm

A

anaerobic

59
Q

end produces 2 atp

A

anaerobic

60
Q

end produces 36 atp

A

aerobic

61
Q

short term form of glucose

A

glycogen

62
Q

how is glycogen used in the process of atp generation and storage

A

glucose turns into glycogen as needed

63
Q

what causes lactic acid

A

mitochondria make as many atp as they can but isn’t enough since theres not enough o2 to sustain aerobic metabolism

64
Q

what happens when lactic acid accumulates

A

may inhibit muscles to continue contracting

65
Q

what happens to lactic acid during the recovery period

A

turns into pyretic acid and then to glucose

66
Q

where does the recovery period of a muscle occur

A

in the liver

67
Q

amount of o2 needed to restore normal conditions

A

oxygen debt

68
Q

Explain the significance of the heat that is produced with muscle contractions.

A

w increase activity more heat is released and body temp climbs

69
Q

fast twitch fbers

A

fast fibers

70
Q

white fibers

A

fast

71
Q

slow twitch fibers

A

slow fibers

72
Q

red muscle fibers

A

slow

73
Q

why is slow red

A

more o2 to muscle fiber

74
Q

muscle hemoglobin

A

myoglobin

75
Q

where is myoglobin

A

in blood

76
Q

cells are bound together and contractions move from cell to cell in a wave

A

peristalsis

77
Q

immoveable/fixed end; usually connected to a bone

A

origin

78
Q

moveable end

A

insertion

79
Q

prime mover; muscle responsible for most of movement

A

agonist

80
Q

muscle who’s action oppose against; responsible for movement in opposite direction

A

antagonist

81
Q

muscle that assist agonist; makes agonist more efficient

A

synergist

82
Q

2 divisions of the nervous system

A

central and peripheral

83
Q

brain and spinal cord

A

central ns

84
Q

cranial and spinal nerves

A

peripheral ns

85
Q

two types of effectors

A

muscles and glands

86
Q

brings sensory info to cns from receptors

A

afferent division

87
Q

carries motor commands from cns to effectors

A

efferent division

88
Q

controls skeletal muscle contractions

A

somatic ns

89
Q

provides automatic regulation of smooth muscle cardiac muscle and glands

A

autonomic ns

90
Q

2 components of the efferent division

A

somatic and autonomic

91
Q

What is unique about a neuron’s nucleus?

A

doesn’t divide

92
Q

short extensions from cell body and receives info from other neurons

A

dendrites

93
Q

long slender cylindrical process w uniform diameter that conducts impulses away from cell

A

axon

94
Q

poorly understood

A

anaxonic neurons

95
Q

relay info about sight, smell, or hearing

A

bipolar neurons

96
Q

carry info/senses into cns

A

unipolar neurons

97
Q

control skeletal muscles

A

multipolar neurons

98
Q

glial cell; supporting cells within nervous tissue

A

neuroglial cells

99
Q

outnumber neuron cells

A

neuroglial

100
Q

myelinate axons

regulate interstitial environment

A

PNS of neuroglial cells

101
Q

act as phagocytes
provide structural framework for neural tissue
help secrete and monitor composition of csf
control interstitial environment within cns
myelinate cns axon

A

CNS of neuroglial cells

102
Q

Name the 2 types of neuroglial cells that myelinate axons

A

oligodendrocytes

schwann cells

103
Q

Describe how these neuroglial cells cover the axon. What do they form?

A

cell processes wrap themselves many times around axon to form many layers along the length of an axon

104
Q

small gaps in axon covering between cells

A

nodes of ranvier

105
Q

contrast the structure of white matter and gray matter in the CNS.

A

white matter is myelinated

gray matter isn’t

106
Q

changes in the transmembrane potential that can’t spread far from the site of stimulation

A

graded potentials

107
Q

propagated changes in the transmembrane potentials that, once started, affect an entire membrane

A

action potential

108
Q

nerve impulse

A

action potential

109
Q

pushing handle down just enough action

A

threshold

110
Q

which one if faster continuous or saltatory and why

A

saltatory because it is myelinated (doesn’t hit every spot on the surface of the axon)

111
Q

explain the role of calcium ions in a synapse.

A

enter the synaptic knob, triggering exocytosis of neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft

112
Q

chemicals released by one neuron to affect the transmembrane potential of another

A

neurotransmitter

113
Q

2 classes of neurotransmitters

A

excitatory and inhibitory

114
Q

causes depolarization and promote generation of action potentials

A

excitatory

115
Q

causes hyper polarization and suppress generation of action potentials

A

inhibitory

116
Q

2 enlargements of the spinal cord

A

cervical and lumbar

117
Q

2 longitudinal grooves of the spinal cord

A

posterior mediam sulcus

anterior median fissure

118
Q

supplies nerves to shoulder and arms

A

cervical

119
Q

supplies nerves to pelvis and legs

A

lumbar

120
Q

how many segments in the spinal cord

A

31

121
Q

what comes out of each segment in the spinal cord

A

spinal nerves

122
Q

what is contained within a dorsal root ganglion.

A

cell bodies of these neurons

123
Q

functions of the nerve roots from the spinal cord

A

form spinal nerves

124
Q

how do the spinal nerves get out of the vertebrae

A

thru intervertebral foramen

125
Q

what happens after the spinal nerves pass thru the vertebrae

A

branch and form peripheral nerves

126
Q

provide physical stability
shock absorption
carrry bloode vessels to deliver nurtients and o2

A

spinal meninges

127
Q

between bones and soft tissue of cord and brain

A

spinal meninges

128
Q

very tough; epidural space

A

dura mater

129
Q

middle layer; subarachnoid space

A

arachnoid mater

130
Q

inner layer thats firmly bound to neural tissue underneath

A

pia mater

131
Q

What is the subarachnoid space filled with and what is its function?

A

CSF; shock absorber and diffusion of nutrients

132
Q

fluid that is within the central canal

A

csf

133
Q

region of the skin surface thats monitored by a single pair of spinal nerves

A

dermatomes

134
Q

damage or infection of a spinal nerve or dorsal root ganglion will produce a characteristic loss of sensation to its corresponding region of the skin

A

importance of dermatomes

135
Q

complex interwoven networks of nerves

A

nerve plexus

136
Q

rapid, automatic responses to specific stimuli

A

reflexes

137
Q

preserve homeostasis by making rapid adjustments in the fx of organs or organ systems

A

reflexes

138
Q

those processed in spinal cord

A

spinal reflexes

139
Q

those processed in brain

A

cranial reflexes

140
Q

4 major brain regions

A

cerebrum
cerebellum
dicencephalon
brainstem

141
Q

the 4 major parts of the diencephalon

A

thalamus
hypothalamus
pituitary
pineal

142
Q

3 parts of the brain stem

A

midbrain
pons
medulla oblongata

143
Q

4 connected chambers within cerebral hemispheres and brain stem

A

brain chambers

144
Q

what are brain chambers filled with

A

csf

145
Q

where CSF is located within the nervous system

A

between ventricles, central canal and subarachnoid space

146
Q

cushions cns structures
supports brain
transports nutrients

A

csf

147
Q

secreted by tiny masses of specialized neuroglial cells and capillaries; project into ventricles and empty

A

formation of csf

148
Q

all communications between brain and spinal cord

A

medulla oblongata

149
Q

centers that control respiratory rate and depth

A

pons

150
Q

helps maintain consciousness and alertness

A

midbrain

151
Q

secretes melatonin

A

pineal gland

152
Q

secretes many hormones

A

pituitary gland

153
Q

central relay point for incoming sensory info and channels them to appropriate regions of cerebral cortex for interpretation

A

thalamus

154
Q

subconscious control of skeletal muscle contractions

A

hypothalamus

155
Q

controls heart rate
bp
respiration
digestive fxs

A

hypothalamus

156
Q

establishes emotional states and expressions; links conscious intellectual fxs of the cerebral cortex with the unconscious

A

limbic system

157
Q

largest region of the brain that has two cerebral hemispheres

A

cerebrum

158
Q

thin blanket of gray matter that covers cerebrum

A

cerebral cortex

159
Q

what hemisphere is the general interpretive area and speech areas found

A

left side

160
Q

emotion
identification of objects
spatial visualization

A

right side

161
Q

performs analytical tasks
general interpretive and speech centers
language based skills

A

left side

162
Q

structures that allow the 2 hemispheres to “mix”.

A

corpus callosum and anterior commissure

163
Q

how many cranial nerve pairs are there

A

12

164
Q

adjusts our basic life support system (homeostasis) without conscious control

A

autonomic ns

165
Q

Provide several examples of visceral effectors of the ANS

A

cardiac muscle
smooth muscle
glands
adipose tissue

166
Q

2 divisions of ans

A

sympathetic

parasympathetic

167
Q

fight or flight

A

sympathetic

168
Q

rest and digest

A

parasympathetic

169
Q

2 types of receptors

A

general senses

special senses

170
Q

temp pain touch pressure vibration and proprioception

A

general senses

171
Q

info sent to primary sensory cortex

A

general senses

172
Q

olfaction vision gustation equlilbrium hearing

A

special senses

173
Q

info sent to specific areas of cortex

A

special senses

174
Q

reduction in sensitivity in the presence of a constant and painless stimulus

A

adaptation

175
Q

difference between somatic and visceral receptors

A

difference of location

176
Q

temp

A

thermoreceptors

177
Q

pain

A

nociceptors

178
Q

physical distortion

A

mechanoreceptors

179
Q

chemical concentration

A

chemoreceptors

180
Q

function of nociceptors

A

protection

181
Q

Nocioceptors are sensitive to what 3 items

A

temp extremes
mechanical damage
dissolved chemicals

182
Q

nociceptor adaptation

A

little to none peripheral adaptation (don’t get used to pain)

183
Q

2 chemicals released by the CNS in response to excessive pain.

A

enkephalins and endorphins

184
Q

detect touch pressure and vibration

A

tactile receptors

185
Q

detect pressure changes in blood vessels and portions of digestive, respiratory and urinary tracts

A

baroreceptors

186
Q

monitor position of joints, tension in tendons and ligaments and the state of muscular contraction

A

proprioceptors

187
Q

3 types of mechanoreceptors

A

tactile
baroreceptors
proprioceptors

188
Q

sense of smell

A

olfaction

189
Q

the location of the olfactory receptor cells

A

nose

190
Q

Explain why olfaction is connected to emotions and memories

A

info to the hypothalamus and limbic system explains emotional and behavioral responses and memories triggered by certain smells

191
Q

the effect of aging on olfaction

A

receptor number decreases and remaining receptors become less sensitive w age

192
Q

sense of taste

A

gustation

193
Q

6 taste sensations

A
sweet
salty
sour
bitter
umami
water
194
Q

Explain why and which certain taste sensations are triggered more rapidly than others

A

threshold for stimulus varies; respond more to unpleasant than pleasant

195
Q

effects of aging on taste

A

decrease taste buds

196
Q

palpabrae

A

eyelids

197
Q

blinking

A

eyelids

198
Q

soft tissue in corner of eye that makes eye boogers

A

lacrimal caruncle

199
Q

epith covering of inner surfaces of eyelids and outer surface of eye

A

conjunctiva

200
Q

secretes tears

A

lacrimal apparatus

201
Q

prevents bacterial infection via antibacterial enzymes

A

lysosome

202
Q

decrease friction and remove debris

A

tears

203
Q

3 layers/tunics of the eye

A

outer fibrous layer
intermediate vascular layer
inner neural layer

204
Q

in the fibrous layer thats the white of the eye

A

sclera

205
Q

fibrous layer thats the window of the eye

A

cornea

206
Q

how the iris and pupil react to light

A

iris- controls light intensity

pupil- opening that lets light pass through

207
Q

inner lining of eyeball and has 2 layers

A

retina

208
Q

Why is the fovea centralis the site of the sharpest vision?

A

no rods

209
Q

Identify the structure and explain why we have a blind spot

A

optic disc; there are no receptors here

210
Q

between cornea and lens and beside lens

A

anterior cavity

211
Q

filled w aqueous humor

A

anterior

212
Q

stabilizes shape of eye

A

posterior cavity

213
Q

filled with vitreous humor

A

posterior

214
Q

focus visual images on the photoreceptors via changing shape

A

acoomodation

215
Q

lens loses transparency; becomes cloudy and opaque

A

cataract

216
Q

one or more types of cones are nonfunctional

A

color blindness

217
Q

very sensitive to light

A

rods

218
Q

see only general outlines

A

rods

219
Q

why only general outlines

A

rods nerve fibers converge and trasmit impulses to brain on same nerve fiber

220
Q

sharp images and fine detail

A

cones

221
Q

visual pigment

A

rhodopsin

222
Q

in rod

A

rhodopsin

223
Q

bright light

A

rhodopsin decomposes

224
Q

dim light

A

rhodopsin is regenerated faster than its broken down

225
Q

3 types of cone

A

red blue green

226
Q

collects and directs sound waves

A

external ear

227
Q

collect sound waves and transmit them

A

middle ear

228
Q

contains sensory organs for hearing and equilibrium

A

internal ear

229
Q

pinna

A

auricle

230
Q

auditory canal

A

external acoustic meatus

231
Q

eardrum; vibrates with incoming sound waves

A

tympanic membrane

232
Q

glands in skin of external acoustic meatus

A

ceruminous glands

233
Q

ear wax

A

cerumen

234
Q

middle ear; permits equalization of pressures on either side of tympanic membrane

A

auditory tube

235
Q

allow microorganisms into middle ear

A

otitis media

236
Q

3 ossicles

A

malleus incus stapes

237
Q

identify where, in the brain, equilibrium information is sent.

A

cerebellum and cerebral cortex

238
Q

primary ossification center

A

central region

239
Q

secondary ossification center

A

epiphyses

240
Q

appositional growth

A

bones grow in width

241
Q

skeletal muscle fibers

A

muscle cells

242
Q

quite different than typical cell and are enormous

A

skeletal muscle fiber

243
Q

neurotransmitter involved in muscle contractions

A

ach