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Flashcards in exam 9 Deck (89)
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1
Q

model organisms

A

species that are easy to raise in the lab and use in experiments

2
Q

differentiation

A

the process by which cells become specialized in structure and function

3
Q

morphogenesis

A

the physical processes that give an organism its shape

the development of the form of an organism and its structures

4
Q

cytoplasmic determinants

A

maternal substances in the egg that influence the course of early development

5
Q

induction

A

most influential are the signals communicated to an embryonic cell from other embryonic cells in the vicinity, including contact with cell-surface molecules on neighboring cells and binding of growth factors secreted by neighboring cells
such signals cause changes in the target cells, a process called induction

6
Q

determination

A

refers to the unseen events that lead to the observable differentiation of a cell

7
Q

tissue specific proteins

A

proteins found only in a specific cell type and give the cell its characteristic structure and function`

8
Q

apoptosis

A

“programmed cell death”

occurs in cells of the mature organism that are infected, damaged, or have reached the end of their functional life span

9
Q

pattern formation

A

development of a spatial organization in which the tissues and organs of an organism are all in their characteristic places

10
Q

positional information

A

molecular cues that control pattern information

provided by cytoplasmic determinants and inductive signals

11
Q

nurse cells & follicle cells

A

supply the egg with nutrients, mRNAs, and other substances needed for development, and make the egg shell

12
Q

homeotic genes

A

genes that control pattern formation in the late embryo, larva, and adult

13
Q

embryonic lethals

A

mutations affecting a process as fundamental as segmentation would surely be embryonic lethals, mutations with phenotypes causing death at the embryonic or larval stage

14
Q

maternal effect gene

A

gene that, when mutant in the mother, results in a mutant phenotype in the offspring, regardlesss of the offspring’s own genotype

15
Q

egg-polarity gene

A

another word for maternal effect gene:
gene that, when mutant in the mother, results in a mutant phenotype in the offspring, regardlesss of the offspring’s own genotype

16
Q

bicoid

A

an embryo whose mother has 2 muant alleles of the bicoid gene lacks the front half of its body and has posterior structures at both ends
bicoid gene is essential for setting up the anterior end of the embryo

17
Q

morphogens

A

substances that establish an embryo’s axes and other features of its form

18
Q

totipotent

A

a cell with the potential to “dedifferentiate” and then give rise to all the specialized cell types of the organism

19
Q

stem cell

A

relatively unspecialized cell that can both reproduce itself indefinitley and, under appropriate conditions, differentiate into specialiszed cells of one or more types

20
Q

pluripotent

A

capable of differentiating into many cell types

21
Q

CC

A

the first cloned cat

the two cats are not identical due to random X chromosome inactivation

22
Q

oncogenes

A

cancer causing genes

23
Q

proto-oncogenes

A

code for proteins that stimulate normal cell growth and division

24
Q

Genetic changes that convert proto-oncogenes into oncogenes

A

movement of DNA within the genome
amplification of a proto-oncogene
point mutations in a control element or in the proto-oncogene itself

25
Q

tumor-suppressor genes (+functions+

A

encode proteins that help prevent uncontrolled cell growth

  • repair damaged DNA
  • control the adhesion of cells
  • inhibit the cell cycle
26
Q

ras gene

A

codes for the ras protein, a G protein that relays a signal from a growth factor receptor on the plasma membrane to a cascade of protein kinases. the cellular response at the end of the pathway is the synthesis of a protein that stimulates the cell cycle
this process would not operate unless triggered by the appropriate growth factor

27
Q

p53 gene

A

the protein it encodes for is a specific transcription factor that promotes the synthesis of cell cycle-inhibiting proteins
a mutation that knocks out the p53 gene, can lead to cancer

28
Q

BRCA1 and BRCA2

A

mutations in the BRCA1 gene were associated with increasing suscpetability to breast cancer
mutations in that gene or the related BRCA2 gene are found in at least half of inherited breast cancers, and tests using DNA sequencing can detect these mutations

29
Q

virus

A

infections particle consisting of little more than genes packaged in a protein coat

30
Q

classification of viruses

A

their genomes may consist of

  • double stranded DNA
  • single stranded DNA
  • double stranded RNA
  • single stranded RNA
31
Q

capsid

A

protein shell enclosing the viral genome
depending on the type of virus, the capsid may be rod-shaped, polyhedral, or more complex in shape
capsids are built from a large number of protein subunits called capsomeres

32
Q

Tobacco mosaic virus

A

has a helical capsid wiht the overall shape of a rigid rod

33
Q

adenoviruses

A

have an icosahedral capsid with a glycoprotein spike at each vertex

34
Q

influenza virus

A

have eight different RNA molecules, each wrapped in a helical capsid, and an outer envelope studded with glycoprotein spikes

35
Q

Bacteriophage

A

has a complex capsid consistign of an icosahedral head and a tail apparatus

36
Q

viral envelopes

A

derived from the membranes of the host cell

contain host cell phospholipids and membrane proteins

37
Q

host range

A

each particular virus can infect only a limited number of host species

38
Q

lytic cycle

A

a phage replicative cycle that culminates in death of the host cell

39
Q

virulent phage

A

a phage that replicates only by the lytic cycle

40
Q

restriction enzymes

A

when phage DNA does enter a bacterium, the DNA often is identified as foreign and cut up by cellular enzymes called restriction enzymes, which are so named because their activity restricts the ability of the phage to infect the bacterium

41
Q

lysogenic cycle

A

allows replication of the phage genome without destroying the host

42
Q

temperate phages

A

phages capable of using both modes of replicating within a bacterium

43
Q

prophage

A

when integrated into the bacterial chromosome, the viral DNA is known as a prophage

44
Q

retroviruses

A

RNA animal viruses with the most complicated replicative cycles
use RT

45
Q

reverse transcriptace

A

(RT) transcribes an RNA template into DNA, providing an RNA-> DNA information flow, the opposite of hte usual direction

46
Q

HIV

A

retrovirus that causes AIDS

47
Q

provirus

A

integrated viral DNA from HIV, never leaves the host’s genome, remaining a permanent resident of the cell

48
Q

vaccine

A

harmless variant or derivative of a pathogen that stimulates the immune system to mount defenses against the harmful pathogen

49
Q

ermerging viruses

A

viruses that suddenly become apparant

50
Q

epidemic

A

general outbreak

51
Q

pandemic

A

global epidemic

52
Q

three processes contribute to the emergence of viral diseases

A

mutation of existing viruses

dissemination of a viral disease from a small, isolated human population

spread of existing viruses from other animals

53
Q

horizontal transmission

A

a plant is infected with a virus from an external source

54
Q

vertical transmission

A

the plant inherits a viral infection from a parent

55
Q

genomics

A

studying whole sets of genes and their interactions

56
Q

bioinformatics

A

the application of computational methods to the storage and analysis of biological data

57
Q

Human genome progect

A

sequencing of the human genome beginning in 1990

58
Q

whole-genome shotgun approach

A

J. Craig Venter developed this
starts with the cloning and sequencing of DNA fragments from randomly cut DNA, powerful computer programs then assemble the resulting very large number of overlapping short sequences into a single continuous sequence

59
Q

metagenomics

A

DNA from a group of species is collected from an environmental ssample and sequenced

60
Q

National library of Medicine and the National Institutes of health

A

United states organizations
Created the National center for biotechnology information (NCBI) which maintains a website with extensive bioinformatics resources

61
Q

European molecular biology laboratory

A

europe

62
Q

DNA data bank

A

Japan

63
Q

BGI

A

Beijing Genome institute in Shenzhen, China

64
Q

proteomics

A

study of the full protein sets encoded by genomes

65
Q

systems biology

A

aims to model the dynamic behavior of whole biological systems

66
Q

microarray chip

A

tiny spots of DNA arranged in a grid on this silicon wafer represent almost all of the genes in the human genome. using this chip, researchers can analyze the expression patterns for all these genes at the same time

67
Q

E. Coli genome sizes and estimated numbers

A

Haploid Genome Size=4.6
Number of Genes=4,400
Genes per Mb=950

68
Q

Yeast genome sizes and estimated numbers

Saccharomyces cerevisiae

A

Haploid Genome size=12
Number of genes=6,300
Genes per Mb=525

69
Q

Drosophila melanogaster genome sizes and estimated numbers

A

Haploid Genome size=165
Number of genes=17,000
Genes per Mb= 84

70
Q

mus musculus (House mouse) genome sizes and estimated numbers

A

Haploid Genome size=2,600
Number of Genes= 22,000
Genes per Mb= 11

71
Q

Humans

A

Haploid genome size=3,000
number of genes=<21,000
genes per Mb=7

72
Q

percent that codes for exons

A

1.5%

73
Q

pseudogenes,

A

former genes that have accumulated mutations over a long time and no longer produce functional proteins

74
Q

repetitive DNA

A

consists of sequences that are present in multiple copies in the genome
75% of repetitive DNA (44% of genome) is made of transposable elements

75
Q

transposable elements

A

stretches of DNA that can move from one location to another within the genome

76
Q

Barbara McClintock

A

experiments with Indian corn discovered transposable elements

77
Q

transposons

A

can move within a genome by means of a DNA intermediate
-cut and paste
-copy and paste
both mechanisms require the enzyme transposase, which is generally econoded by the transposon

78
Q

retrotransposons

A

move by means tof an RNA intermediate htat is a transcript of retrotransposon DNA
always leave a copy at the original site
use reverse transcriptase

79
Q

simple sequence DNA

A

contains many copies of tandemly repeated short sequences

80
Q

short tandem repeat (STR)

A

when the repeated unit contains 2-5 nucleotides,

81
Q

multigene families

A

collections of 2 or more identical or very similar genes

82
Q

domains

A

proteins often have a modular architecture consisting of discrete structural and functional regions called domains

83
Q

exon shuffling

A

could have moved exons from ancestral forms of the genes for epidermal growth factor, fibronectin, and plasminogen into the evolving gene for tissue plasminogen activator, TPA. duplication of an exon could account for the increased neeed for the protein it codes for

84
Q

highly conserved

A

genes have remained similar

85
Q

FOXP2

A

vocalization

  • both genes=normal vocalization
  • one gene=some vocalization
  • no genese=no vocalization
86
Q

single nucleotide polymorphisms

A

single base-pair sites where variation is found in at least 1% of the population

87
Q

evo-devo

A

evolutionary developmental biology

compare developmental processes of different multicellular organisms

88
Q

homeobox

A

180-nucleotide sequence, which specifies a 60-amino acid homeodomain in the encoded proteins

89
Q

hox genes

A

homeotic genes in animals