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ISBM > Exam #1_Semester 2 > Flashcards

Exam #1_Semester 2 Flashcards

1
Q

muscle type - skeletal

A

Voluntary

Striated; multi-nucleated

Controlled by the somatic nervous system – cell are quiet until stimulated

Makes up large %age of body mass (40-45%)

Ca+2 contained within SR

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2
Q

muscle type - smooth

A

No striations; contractile components are organized differently; contractions “ball-up” fibers

Cells are small but lengthy (smallest of 3 types)

Controlled by the autonomic nervous system – large hormonal influence
- myosin-based regulation

“Dense bodies” act like z-lines b/c they anchor thin and thick filaments

Ca+2 comes from extracellular area (as well as SR)

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3
Q

muscle type - cardiac

A

Striated; bi-nucleate

Modulated by the autonomic nervous system – somewhat automatic

Actin-based regulation

Much smaller than skeletal muscle cells

Exhibit branching with extensive gap junctions allowing for electrical coupling - intercalated discs

Ca+2 contained within SR

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4
Q

skeletal muscle fiber

A

20-90 microns in diameter, but centimeters in length

Contains the myofibril – the contractile/regulatory apparatus

There are highly ordered arrays of myofibrils within muscle fibers

Multinucleated

Sarcolema = plasma membrane

Sarcoplasm = cytoplasm

Basement membrane = reticular fibers rich in collagen; contribute to tension of muscle cells

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5
Q

myofibril

A

contractile / regulatory unit of the muscle fiber (many myofibrils within a muscle fiber)
- composed of many proteins; we focus on a few (actin, myosin, tropomyosin, troponin, titin)

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6
Q

sarcolemma

A

plasma membrane of muscle fiber / cell

- appears porous: entry points for t-tubule system

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7
Q

sarcoplasm

A

cytoplasm of muscle fiber / cell

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8
Q

basement membrane

A

reticular fibers rich in collagen on muscle cell; contribute to tension of muscle cells

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9
Q

myofiber

A

muscle fiber / cell

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10
Q

reticular fibers

A

consist of collagen and elastin and thus are capable of stretching
• Responsible, although other components contribute, for the passive tension of muscle cell

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11
Q

T-tubules

A

extensions of the muscle cell sarcolemma; extend into sarcoplasm and has intimate relationship with sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)

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12
Q

sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)

A

envelopes sarcomere in muscle cells; sequesters Ca+2 to keep sarcoplasmic levels low until stimulation occurs

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13
Q

sarcomere

A

contractile (functional) until of muscle fiber; distance b’t two z lines; made up of actin (think filaments) and myosin (thick filaments)

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14
Q

A-band

A

Anisotropic band: comprised of the thick filaments of the contractile unit due to the presence of myosin. Also includes think filaments in this area.

The length of the A band does not change in response to contractions (it is the length of thick filament)

Cross-section shows 6 thin filaments around 1 thick filament

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15
Q

I-band

A

Isotropic band: less dense, contains only the thin filaments of the contractile apparatus, no thick filaments; spans the Z line
• Length of I band decreases as muscle contracts

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16
Q

H zone

A

Includes M proteins of thick (heavy) filament; only thick filament
• No overlap of thick and thin filaments
• Can change length during contraction

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17
Q

Z-band

A

thin filaments are anchored to z-band

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18
Q

myosin filaments

A

thick filaments surrounded by myosin head groups (meromyosin) - possesses ATPase enzymatic activity
- allows interaction with actin (thin) filaments

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19
Q

actin filaments

A

Tropomyosin proteins embed themselves in the groove created by actin monomers

Associated with the tropomyosin are 3 types of Troponin, that act as the regulatory elements that influence the ability of the head group (meromyosin) of the thick filaments to interact with actin monomers

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20
Q

Three troponin molecules

A

interact with tropomyosin molecules to facilitate the “switch mechanism”
o TnT = Tropomyosin binding
o TnC = Calcium binding protein (at rest, troponin has no relation with Ca+2
o TnI = Inhibitory, prevents interaction between myosin head group and thin filament (cross bridge formation)

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21
Q

intercalated discs

A

finger-like projections that create a large amount of surface area between adjacent cardiac myocytes, allowing for decreased electrical resistance via introduction of gap junctions and other machinery

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22
Q

Common features between 3 muscle types

A

Contractile proteins are actin and myosin

Myosin possesses enzymatic activity (ATPase – hydrolyzes ATP)
- Different muscle types do this at different speeds

Cells shorten as a consequence of actin-myosin interaction

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23
Q

Differences between 3 muscle types

A

Regulation of contractile activity
o Actin-based in skeletal and cardiac
o Myosin based in smooth muscle – phosphorylation

Sustainability of contractile force
o Smooth muscle is greatest / can sustain longer durations

Type and actions of NTs and hormones
o Note – hormones only for cardiac and smooth, no skeletal

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24
Q

motor unit

A

functional unit of skeletal muscle

single motor neuron (alpha motor neuron) and each of the muscle fibers that neuron innervates

Note: direct neural conductivity goes from CNS to periphery (1 motor neuron), thus, a depolarization that is large enough will cause a response

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25
Q

excitation-contraction coupling

A

basic aspect of neuromuscular transmission

entire electrophysiologic response is over before contraction of muscle fiber begins; electrical activity (AP) is completed prior to onset of contractile activity

Allows for sustained contraction - APs can continue to fire in muscle cells since absolute and relative periods end prior to contraction

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26
Q

temporal summation

A

repetitive stimulation of a muscle fiber results in production of greater contractile force

  • sustained contraction is result of frequent enough triggering of muscle fiber APs
  • results in saturating cytoplasmic Ca+2 instead of transient increase)
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27
Q

motor end-plate

A

aka: neuromuscular junction

interface between axon terminal and muscle fiber surface

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28
Q

acetylcholinesterase (ACHE)

A

enzyme on post-synaptic membrane that hydrolyzes acetylcholine into acetate and choline

  • Terminating its biological activity (can’t bind receptors) = transient nature of signaling
  • Primary way that the actions of AC are terminated at NMJ
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29
Q

choline acetyltransferase (CAT or ChAT)

A

uses choline and acetyl-CoA to synthesize acetylcholine

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30
Q

calsequestrin

A

protein that binds free Ca+2 in SR; must dissociate with Ca+2 for Ca+2 efflux to occur
- mainly in skeletal and cardiac muscle; also in SM to a smaller extent

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31
Q

SERCA (sarcoplasmic endoplasmic reticular calcium ATPase)

A

Responsible for resequestration of Ca into the SR (occurs at expense of ATP hydrolysis – energy dependent)
• Dependent on presence of ATP – draw on ATP pool
• Dependent on [Ca] (free calcium) in the cytoplasm
• This mechanism is constantly acting

Note: main mechanisms by which intracellular Ca levels diminish in skeletal and cardiac muscle

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32
Q

two consequences of free cytoplasmic Ca+2 (intracellular)

A

ATPase activity - high with high levels of Ca

Fiber tension - inc with increasing Ca

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33
Q

physiology of rigor mortis

A

actin and myosin of skeletal muscle fibers are bound, but not ATP is available to hydrolyze to ADP and Pi (recall: ADP binding and subsequent release is necessary for myosin conformational change and shift in sarcomere length)

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34
Q

what stops cycle of muscle contraction in living skeletal muscles

A

SERCA (using ATP) lowers cytoplasmic Ca

- result is that TnC does not bind Ca and tropomyosin blocks myosin head binding

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35
Q

Sliding filament theory - changes in length of sarcomere sections with skeletal muscle contraction

A

Movement of thin filaments relative to thick filaments
- A band stays the same length as we move from relaxed to contracted state (since comprised of thick filaments only which do not change in length)

  • I band shrinks considerably, creating an increase in overlap between thick and thin filaments
  • H zone shrinks
  • Distance b/t z-lines shrinks
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36
Q

Two components of muscle force / tension

A

Active tension (based on actin and myosin; function of ATP hydrolysis)

Passive tension: develops as muscle fiber stretches (inc. in length)

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37
Q

sources of energy (ATP) for muscle contraction

A
  1. phosphagen system (2 reactions)
  2. glycolysis
  3. oxidative phosphorylation
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38
Q

phosphagen system: two reactions

A

direct phosphorylation of creatine or dephosphorylation of creatine phosphate by creatine kinase (depends on adenylate charge)

adenylate kinase (ADK; aka myokinase) uses 2 ADP to make ATP and AMP

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39
Q

slow oxidative (type I) versus fast glycolytic (type II) muscle fibers

A

Type I:

  • slow rate of ATP hydrolysis
  • high oxidative capacity (mitochondrial content), capillary density, myoglobin)
  • rely mainly on oxidative phosphorylation for ATP production

Type II:

  • fast rate of ATP hydrolysis
  • rely mainly on glycolytic activity to generate ATP
  • generate ATP quickly, but fatigue quickly (SERCA mechanism is high)

Note: most muscles are a mix of type I and type II fiber types; however, a fiber type can predominate

  • glycolytic muscle will achieve peak tension quickly, but this cannot be sustained
  • oxidative muscles achieve peak tension more slowly but muscle tension is sustained
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40
Q

myasthenia gravis

A

autoimmune disease in which AchR on post-synaptic cell are degraded (can be systemic or focal)
- diagnostic test: inhibit AchE and see if muscle function / performance is restored in short term

41
Q

diseases and toxins effecting NMJ

A 
presynaptic:
 - botulinum toxin (honey)
junctional action: 
 - inhibitors of AchE
 - congenital AchE deficiency
postsynaptic action:
 - myasthenia gravis
 - congenital defects in AchR
42
Q

two forms of smooth muscle fibers

A

multi-unit:

  • electrically isolated, no gap junctions, highly innervated (en passant)
  • found on arteriole SM; very small

unitary:

  • cells coupled via extensive gap junctions, less dense innervation than multiunit
  • found on visceral muscle and organs
  • these muscles respond as a unit to a stimulus (NT or hormone)
43
Q

two proteins responsible for release of Ca+2 from sarcoplasmic reticulum

A

RYR: in skeletal and cardiac muscle

  • spans gap between T-tubules and SR
  • voltage gated Ca channel

Intracellular IP3 receptor on SR: in smooth muscle
- binds 2nd messenger IP3 which increases when cell is stimulated by hormone or NT

44
Q

phasic contraction of smooth muscle

A

Brief stimulation (ex. brief release of NEpi from enpassant) results in a large (voltage dependent) increase in [Ca]

  • Very transient – analogous to a single AP
  • Order of events: increased [Ca], myosin phosphorylation, increased force
45
Q

tonic (sustained) contraction of smooth muscle

A

Ca initially spikes and then drops back down but not to resting level (30-40% max)

Myosin phosphorylation (cross-bridge phosphorylation) follows with the same pattern – spike and then drop off

Force is increased and maintained until stimulus is removed – why?
o Mechanism is not entirely understood – sustained force is dependent on ATP availability
o Due to engagement of myosin head groups and their de-phosphorylation when they are bound to actin – called latch state (myosin stays bound to actin); mechanism of latch state is unclear
o Unphosphorylated myosin contributes to sustained contractile force (MLCP de-phosphorylates myosin)

46
Q

latch state

A

myosin stays bound to actin during a tonic SM contraction
- myosin is de-phosphorylated

Contributes to sustained contractile force seen in SM

47
Q

cholinergic

A

associated with acetylcholine (Ach) – either liberates, releases or associates with Ach

48
Q

adrenergic

A

associated with norepinephrine (noradrenaline) or epinephrine (adrenaline)

49
Q

potency

A

affinity a receptor has for its ligand

Different receptors have “differential affinity” for different ligands, which is one influence on what effect a particular NT or hormone will have

50
Q

Autonomic Nervous System - General Characteristics

A

Primary and essential homeostatic control system
o All aspects of physiologic control are under ANS control

Direct cellular effects via neurotransmission
o Rapid alteration of organ systems
o Receptor-mediated – examples: Ach or norepi

Indirect cellular effects via humoral influences
o Adrenal medulla acts as postsynaptic response, releasing epi
o Chemically, this is a direct effect, but called indirect since goes through adrenal medulla

Hypothalamus is the primary site of integration of efferent ANS activity
o However, high brain centers also contribute to efferent traffic from hypothalamus

51
Q

PNS and SNS - similarities

A

o Both innervate thoracic and abdominal organ extensively
o Most organs receive dual innervation from PNS and SNS
- exception: sweat glands, blood vessels, and hair follicles only SNS

52
Q

somatic and autonomic NS - key anatomical difference (efferent signals)

A

Somatic efferent axon: begins as alpha motor neuron in ventral horn of spinal cord (receives a signal from inner neuron resident within CNS) and extends from cell body to synapse with a motor end-plate (travels uninterrupted) at muscle cell
o Axon is myelinated

Autonomic efferent axon: extends from cell body in CNS out the ventral horn to synapse with a post ganglionic cell body (located in either a PNS or SNS ganglia); post ganglionic neuron projects to an end organ
o Preganglionic fibers are myelinated
o Post ganglionic fibers are not myelinated

53
Q

activities that result from SNS discharge

A

The fight or flight response (fear, anger, strong emotion)
o HR and contractile force increases
o Smooth muscle cells in vasculature constricts (especially skin and viscera) – not what you would want
o Pupils dilate
o Bronchiolar SM relaxes, enlarging airways
o Plasma [glucose] and [FFA] increases – metabolic effects
o Piloerection occurs (hair erects)

54
Q

why does SNS bring about diffuse (system-wide) response?

A
  1. preganglionic fibers enter the paravertebral ganglion and then has options (synapse in the ganglion, travel up/down the chain to synapse in another ganglion, or pass through the ganglion to synapse with a ganglion outside of the chain)
    - One preganglionic fiber can branch and exhibit a number of different synapsing options (e.g. drive many post-ganglionic responses)
  2. innervation of adrenal medulla resulting in hormone release
    - Widespread effects of SNS
55
Q

why does PNS bring about discrete (localized) response?

A

stimulation of preganglionic fiber only impacts the innervated gland or organ

56
Q

how do you tell if a nerve fiber is from SNS or PNS?

A

origin of preganglionic cell body

- not the NT released

57
Q

NE is primary NT released at end organs of SNS - what is exception

A

cholinergic synapse with sweat glands (Ach released)

58
Q

ionotropic receptors

A

ligand-gated channels, bind ligand which causes these receptors to become patent (Na influx and K efflux occur)
o Ex. nicotinic cholinergic receptors
o Ionic conductance is changed when these receptors are stimulated

59
Q

metabotropic receptors

A

change metabolic activity through 2nd messenger system

o Ex. muscarinic and alpha and beta adrenergic receptors

60
Q

pre-synaptic inhibition

A

unique ability of norepi to bind alpha-2 adrenergic receptors on presynaptic neurons, which inhibits vesicular fusion and subsequent release of NE

61
Q

hyperpolarizing

A

moving from zero to more and more negative; creating larger and larger potential

62
Q

depolarizing

A

moving from -100 to zero; creating less and less of a potential

63
Q

en passant junctions

A

b/t autonomic nerve fibers and smooth muscle; multiple buttons on single axon act as axon terminals and innervate SM
- NT release occurs at every point

64
Q

factors that influence the effect that a specific NT or hormone will have upon tissue

A

receptor distribution: not all subtypes are present in all tissues

receptor density: magnitude of response is dependent on number of receptors as well as amount of NT or hormone available

differential affinity: affinity of receptor for its ligand (NT or hormone) - potency

Note: power of a NT/hormone response influenced by # of receptors and power of 2nd messenger generated

65
Q

differential affinity

A

difference in the affinity a specific receptors has for its various ligands
- aka potency

66
Q

parasympathetic and sympathetic tone

A

both arms of the ANS are always active, but not equally active

In a resting state: PNS tone is dominant (2 to 1 ratio)

67
Q

sensory receptors - general

A

neuronal elements that provide feedback and sensory information to the CNS; operate via homeostatic feedback loop

  • take a physical modality and translate it into the language of the CNS (changes in membrane potential)
  • can be part of the somatic or autonomic NS’s
68
Q

sensory receptor concepts

A

Differential sensitivity – each receptor type is highly sensitive, but not exclusively, to one type of stimulating entity
o Example: rods and cones are most sensitive to photons (but also sensitive to pressure)

Dimensions of sensation are associated with each receptor
o Modality – type or quality of sensation (photons, pressure, sound, etc.)
o Intensity – strength or magnitude of the stimulus (light touch vs. heavy pressure, soft sounds vs. loud sounds)
o Duration and or frequency – impacts function
o Location – point of origin of the stimulus (called the receptive field) = where are the receptors for a particular sensation (touch, taste, etc.) are located

Phenomenon of adaptation – alteration of activity as a result of prolonged stimulation
o Can be slow or rapid

69
Q

dimensions of sensation associated with sensory receptors (4)

A

o Modality – type or quality of sensation (photons, pressure, sound, etc.)
o Intensity – strength or magnitude of the stimulus (light touch vs. heavy pressure, soft sounds vs. loud sounds)
o Duration and or frequency – impacts function
o Location – point of origin of the stimulus (called the receptive field) = where are the receptors for a particular sensation (touch, taste, etc.) are locate

70
Q

homeostatic feedback loop

A 
o	Physical stimuli are detected by the SRs, and transduced to the CNS (integration center) electrically via the afferent pathway
o	Higher (cortical) centers have an input on the outcome of information delivered to the deeper integration centers of the brain (thalamus, HT, etc.)
o	Neutrally encoded information leaves the integration center and travels along the efferent pathway to effectors cells/organs that will make adjustments to the regulated variable
 - Travels in form of action potential
71
Q

adequate stimulus

A

Specific physical parameter to which a specific SR is sensitive

The modality to which a specific SR is sensitive (usually unique, but occasionally more than one stimulus can evoke a physiologic response from a specific SR)

72
Q

muller’s law of specific nervous energies`

A

each modality of sensation must have a system of nerves that is selectively activated by only the appropriate form of physical energy.

Also, a single SR type will produce the same perception regardless of what physical stimulus is applied (pressure on the eyes produces the perception of light)

73
Q

frequency modulation

A

the magnitude of the receptor potential (RP) dictates the number of APs produced by a SR
- linear relationship

74
Q

dynamic range

A

spectrum of stimulus intensity to which a sensory receptor can respond
- more sensitive at lower intensities

75
Q

sensory receptor adaptation

A

alteration in the rate of AP generation (response) as a function of time - some receptors are active for a brief period of time (rapidly adapting receptors) whereas others continue AP output for the duration of an applied stimulus (slowly / poorly adapting stimulus)

76
Q

retina

A

sits inside choroid at back of eye; site of signal transduction; many cells located here that mediate response of sensory receptors (rods and cones)
- photons of light must pass through many layers of the retina before reaching rods and cones

77
Q

pigmented epithelium (PE)

A

layer between the retina and choroid that is essential for maintaining the integrity of the rods and cones (provides nutrients)
- along with choroid, prevents light from scattering

78
Q

fovea

A

area on retina consisting only of cones; area of greatest visual acuity
- pick up on ophthalmic exam

79
Q

rods

A

most abundant visual SRs on retina; allow us to see in low light (night vision)

80
Q

cones

A

less abundant SRs; responsible for detecting a broad range of wavelength; responsible for color vision

81
Q

rhodopsin

A

transmembrane protein; visual pigment consisting of opsin and 11-cis-retinal

82
Q

accommodation (with vision)

A

stimulates change in shape of lens (via ciliary muscle)

- occurs due to incident light or need to focus on near object

83
Q

miosis

A

constriction of pupil; cholinergic (PNS) response

  • contraction of sphincter muscle of iris
  • mediated by muscarinic cholinergic receptors
  • this is a strong (+++) PNS response
  • Ach constricts pupil!
84
Q

mydriasis

A

dilation of pupil; adrenergic (SNS) response

  • contraction of radial muscle of iris
  • acts via alpha-1 receptors via Gq (IP3)
  • Norepi dilates pupil!
85
Q

what happens when incident light shines into eye

A

activates the parasympathetic response of both meiosis (via contraction of the sphincter muscle of the Iris) and accommodation (via contraction of the ciliary muscle)

86
Q

what is used to dilate pupil during eye exam

A

muscarinic receptor agonist; anti-muscarinic agent (block Ach from binding; Ach binding would typically cause contraction at muscarinic receptors)

87
Q

sensory receptors for hearing

A

hair cells - mechanoreceptors

88
Q

hair cells

A

mechanoreceptors; responsible for transaction of air pressure (via sound waves) into neural signals (APs)

  • housed in organ of court
  • exist along basilar membrane
  • in contact with tectorial membrane
  • simple, rod-shaped cells with stereo cilia projections
89
Q

three inner ear bones

A

malleus - contact with TM (umbo)

incus

stapes - contact with oval window to cochlea; pressure transducer that moves oval window back and forth

90
Q

helicotrema

A

opening at distal portion of cochlea (apex) b/t scala vestibule and tympani that allows for continuity of fluid movement b/t two large chambers of cochlea (scala vestibule and scala tympany)
- creates continuity for pressure equilibrium

91
Q

organ of corti

A

sensory transduction apparatus located in cochlea; houses hair cells as well as many other cell types

92
Q

three chambers of the cochlea

A

scala vestibule
scala media
scala tympani

note: two distict functional chambers are the vestibule and tympani

93
Q

stereo cilia of hair cells

A

Sensory receptor portion of hair cell
- alterations of the cilia of these cells changes ionic conductance across the apical membrane, resulting in ionic moment across cell membrane and transmission to AP

94
Q

oval window

A

membranous structure that seals off cochlea and vestibular apparatus
-movement of stapes impacts fluid in these structures

95
Q

what are 2nd order neurons for hair cells

A

hair cells transmit AP to CN VIII fibers towards CNS

96
Q

what ion drives inward current when hair cells are are depolarized

A

K+ - this is only time we have seen K+ as inward, depolarizing current!

97
Q

are humans equally responsive to all sound frequencies

A

no, low frequency requires a higher decibel (power) to be audible compared to high frequency sounds

98
Q

ultimately, what dictates the sound you hear

A

position of hair cells on basilar membrane - which cells are stimulated (varies by frequency of sound wave) - different regions stimulate different afferent nerve fibers that project to auditory processing center of CNS

ISBM (7 decks)

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