culture: key historical events

Question 1

• 1962—

Answer 1

C. Gilbert Wrenn authors The Culturally Encapsulated Counselor.

Question 2

• 1970s—

Answer 2

William Cross, Jr., develops one of the first racial identity development models, the Cross Nigrescence Model.

Question 3

• 1990s—

Answer 3

Janet Helms edits Black and White Racial Identity: Theory, Research and Practice. This book and subsequent research make significant strides in cultural identity development research.

Question 4

• 1991—(ACA)

Answer 4

The ACA (known then as the American Association of Counseling and Development) approves the multicultural counseling competency standards (see Section 2.1.3 for more information).

Question 5

• 1991 (Pedersen)—

Answer 5

Paul Pedersen labels multiculturalism as the “fourth force” in counseling, moving to center stage the importance of culture in counseling. This force follows the three forces of psychodynamic, (cognitive-) behaviorism, and humanism-existentialism.

Question 6

• 1992—

Answer 6

The Multicultural Counseling Competency standards are published concurrently in the Journal of Counseling & Development and the Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development.

Question 7

• 1996—

Answer 7

Patricia Arredondo and colleagues operationalize the 31 multicultural counseling competency standards in a seminal article (see Arredondo, Toporek, Brown, Jones, Locke, Sanchez, & Stadler, 1996).

Question 8

• 2001—

Answer 8

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS, 2001) publishes the Surgeon General’s Report (Mental Health: Culture, Race and Ethnicity—A Supplement to Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General) that highlights significant research related to how race and ethnicity (and associated oppression and resiliency experiences) influence mental health outcomes.

Question 9

• 2003—

Answer 9

The Advocacy Competencies are approved by the American Counseling Association (Lewis, Arnold, House, & Toporek, 2003).

Question 10

• 2004—

Answer 10

Manivong Ratts and colleagues (Ratts, D’Andrea, & Arredondo, 2004) label social advocacy as the “fifth force” of counseling.

Question 11

• 2005—

Answer 11

The ACA Code of Ethics is revised to include a greater emphasis on culture.

Question 12

• 2014—

Answer 12

The ACA Code of Ethics is revised again to more explicitly direct counselors toward multicultural counseling competency.

Question 13

• 2015—

Answer 13

The Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies (Ratts, Singh, Nassar-McMillan, Butler, & McCullough, 2015) are developed, expanding the 1992 Multicultural Counseling Competency standards to speak more in-depth to social justice praxis and advocacy interventions.