Concepts
metal representations of specific objects, events, or ideas (apply pie, cherry pie)
Categories
larher group of concepts based on their similarity to one another (pies)
Classical categorization approach
we grip together objects and events into categories because they share common defining features
Graded membership
some members are better representatives than others
Sentence verification technique
experiment asking true or false like a “robin is a bird’ people are faster to say yes than if asked a “penguin is a bird”
Prototype
the average of all members of a category (seeing motorcycle unlike one you have seen before but knowing it is still a motorcycle)
Semontic network
connection to similar concepts will be closer than ones with dissimilar concepts
Top level of semontic network
superordinate level
Bottom level of semontic network
subordinate level
Middle of semontic network
basic
Linguistic relativity (whorfran hypothesis)
Idea that differences in languages between cultures change the way members of those cultures actually perceive the world
2 routes to problem solving, judgments and decision making
- algorithm
- heuristics
Algorithm
slow, logical and step by step solution to a problem based on a set of rules
Heuristics
relying on past experience to make a quick and reasonable guess as to the problems solution
Cognitive obstacles
when you can’t think of the normal solution (nine dot obstacle)
Functional fixedness
tendency to treat objects as only serving one function
Representation heuristic
assumption that all members of a category share the same features based on ones experience with only a small number of category members (meeting a jon thinking he is rude then judging jobs based on that)
Base rates
same group of people that do a certain thing will be smaller than the group of people that dont
Conjunction fallacy
failure to appreciate that the probability of two events occurring together must be lower than the probability of either of those events occurring alone
The availability heuristic
making judgements about the frequency with which events occur based on how easy it is for us to think of examples
The anchoring effect
restrictions in a persons numerical judgements based solely on their exposure to same number
High number in anchoring effect =
high estimate
Low number in anchoring effect =
low estimate
Framing effects
when the mere wording of a question has a biasing influence on our judgements or decision making
Belief perseverance
persisting in ones pre existing beliefs, despite exposure to evidence that contradicts those beliefs
Conformation bias
seeking out and attending to evidence that supports some belief while also actively avoiding evidence that contradicts that belief
2 different types of decision makers
- maximizers
- satisficers
Maximizers
thoroughly explore the pros and cons associated with every option in an effort to make the best possible choice
Satisficers
do very little research and simply choose the first option that fulfills some minimum set of criteria
Which type of decision maker is usually happier with their choices?
satisficers
Paul Brocca
first made studies noticeable in this field (frontal lobe)
Carl Wernicke
published important study after Brocca (left temporal lobe)
Aphasia
any specific impairment in the ability to produce or comprehend language
Aphasia is usually damage in the ______ lobe
frontal
Brocca’s aphasia
an impairment in the ability to produce language through speech
Wernicke’s aphasia
an impairment in the ability to comprehend spoken language
Language
a rule based means of communication, using spoken, written, or gestural symbols
Advantages of language
- allows us to communicate about things that are not physically present
- allows for creating symbols to represent completely novel concepts that may not even exist in reality
- can b transferred from one generation to the next
Language productivity
the basic units of language permit an almost infinite number of combinations
Phonemes
smallest unit of language, the units of sound that we use to form words
Morphemes
smallest meaningful units of language
Semantics
the study of how people learn the meaning of words
Orthography
the visual representation of words (reading)
Phonology
the speech based representation of words (talking)
Dyslexia
Particular deficit in reading that can occur in individuals who are otherwise of normal intelligence
Primary difficulty for dyslexic people are
translating the orthography words into phonological representation
Syntax
the rules that define the acceptable order of combining words into phrases and sentences
Noun phrase
“all rule-following sentences”
Verb phrase
“must have a noun phrase and a verb phrase”
Pragmatics
non linguistic aspects of our communication with language such as body language, tone of voice and reliance on cultural expression that one not to be taken literally (helps understand sarcasm)
We are born with ability to see __ _____ but don’t use that many, in english we use __ _____
200 phonemes; 40 phonemes
Dr. Werker
“This doll’ vs “your doll” detected young infants can detects the difference in the d sound
Other features of infants that support language acquisition
- infants prefer speech sounds to other types of sounds
- prefer phoneme combinations that are common in the language they are exposed to
- prefer hearing nouns and verbs over other words
Naming explosion
through infancy and toddlerhood humans learn so fast it qualifies as a type of explosion
Fast mapping
very young children appear to learn many words with only one single exposure
Overgeneralization errors
“we goed to the park, i chased the gooses”
Sensitive period
the early period in our lifespan, during which equitation on language occurs quite easily and naturally can pick up languages easier
Cross fostering
placing a chimpanzee to be raised as a member of a human family
Lexigrams
small symbols used for communication
Concerns about chimpanzee’s capacity for language
- no chimp has used language to form complex phrases
- no chimp has passed their knowledge of language to kids
- no chimp has generated a new symbol as a way to make reference to an unfamiliar object of event (productivity function)
- working so close with chimps may compromise the objectivity of the researchers involved in chimps language studies