Chapter 6

Question 1

John Money vs. Tiger Devore’s views on gender

Answer 1

• Money believes gender is learned, and that gender identity can also be learned if assigned early and properly enforced
• Devore (who was born intersex) believes that gender is learned, but gender identity cannot be assigned and learned -> it’s determined by our mind

Question 2

typical medical practice for infants with ambiguous genitals and its alternative

Answer 2

• typical practice: surgery to “normalize” genitals
• in 2006, it was recommended to be very cautious with doing these surgeries
• alternative: do nothing - allow kids to live with body they’re born in, and they can decide later if they want to go through surgery

Question 3

typical advice parents of transgender children receive

Answer 3

• “gender adjustment model”
• convince child to accept/adjust to birth sex
• correct cross-gender behaviour (gender non-conformity)
• reinforce sex-typing (children conforming to gender norms and enjoying activities consistent with socially acceptable activities for their gender)

Question 4

modern advice parents of transgender children receive

Answer 4

• “identity actualization model”
• accept gender identity claimed by child
• allow child to socially transition in childhood and physically transition in adolescence (through puberty blocking hormones - controversial b/c we don’t know long-term effects on development, sex hormones, and/or sex-reassignment surgery)

Question 5

sex

Answer 5

• biologically defined term

- classification of people as male or female based on chromosomes, hormones, internal reproductive organs, and genitalia

Question 6

intersex

Answer 6

individual with ambiguous genitals who cannot be easily classified as male or female

Question 7

gender

Answer 7

• socially defined term
• based on roles, behaviours, activities, and personality traits considered ‘proper’ for men and women
• usually consists of 2 binary categories: masculine and feminine
• culture and history dependent

Question 8

gender identity

Answer 8

• personally defined (defined by our own mind)

- contains 2 aspects: core gender identity and gender role identity

Question 9

core gender identity

Answer 9

• how one personally defines their sex identity
• typically solidified by 3 years of age
• typically a binary category (male or female)
• typically permanent, immutable (can’t be changed by parents or doctors), and stable

Question 10

genderqueer

Answer 10

someone who doesn’t identify as male or female

Question 11

transgender identity

Answer 11

• core gender identity and biological sex at birth do not match (1% of people)
• gender dissonance

Question 12

cisgender identity

Answer 12

core gender identity and biological sex match

Question 13

gender-role identity

Answer 13

• how one personally defines their gender identity (preferred gender roles, ornamentation, behaviour, activities, personality traits)
• tied to familial, society, cultural and historical factors
• continually modified/refined across the lifespan (ex. can be modified to become more traditional once you become a parent)

Question 14

androgynous

Answer 14

if one’s gender role identity includes some socially prescribed roles, behaviours, activities, and psychological attributes of both men and women

Question 15

4 types of gender role identities

Answer 15

1. masculine: high levels of masculinity, low levels of femininity
2. feminine: high levels of femininity, low levels of masculinity
3. androgynous: high levels of both masculinity and femininity
4. undifferentiated: low levels of both masculinity and femininity

Question 16

Implications of studies showing that different gender role identities have different levels of self-esteem in different countries

Answer 16

• In America, adolescents with masculine or androgynous gender identity had highest self-esteem, whereas in Israel, girls with masculine gender identity had lower self-esteem
• shows that American results aren’t universal
• also shows that androgyny can have self-esteem benefits and that forcing people to adhere to gender norms isn’t even in their best interest

Question 17

gender expression

Answer 17

• the way one publicly communicates their gender identity with others (behaviours, clothing, hairstyle, etc.)
• typically consistent with core gender identity, but not always (ie. when dressing up in drag)

Question 18

transgender as an umbrella term

Answer 18

• includes both gender identity (gender dissonance) and gender expression (gender variant or cross-gender behaviour)
• has political advantage of being more inclusive in order to prevent discrimination

Question 19

how parents reinforce sex-typing in children

Answer 19

• parents reinforce sex-typed behaviour as young as 18 months
• children show sex-typed behaviour as early as 18-24 months (before they can label themselves as male or female)
• parent reinforcement of gender norms positively associated with sex-typing in children

Question 20

how same-sex peers contribute to sex-typing in children

Answer 20

• kids show preference for same-sex friends as early as 3 (after they can label themselves and others as male or female)
• sex-typed behaviour is encouraged in same-sex friendship interactions
• same-sex friendships positively associated with sex-typing in children -> demands more gender conformity

Question 21

interactions in same-sex female friendships

Answer 21

• enabling style of interaction
• no open conflict (must be publicly nice, can be mean behind each other’s backs)
• no boasting/self-promotion
• support/compliment each other

Question 22

interactions in same-sex male friendships

Answer 22

• restricted/constricting style of interaction
• open conflict expected
• self-promotion expected
• interrupting expected

Question 23

how age contributes to gender role knowledge and flexibility

Answer 23

• age influences gender role knowledge, which positively correlates with sex-typing in children
• age is negatively correlated with cross-gender behaviour in children

Question 24

gender role knowledge/sex-typing at 0-3 years

Answer 24

• low gender role knowledge

- low sex-typing; some cross-gender behaviour is the norm

Question 25

gender role knowledge/sex-typing at 3-5 years

Answer 25

• rigid gender role knowledge/low flexibility (nothing is in the “both” basket - things are either for boys or for girls)
• rigid sex-typing, low cross-gender behaviour

Question 26

gender role knowledge/flexibility at 7 years

Answer 26

some gender role flexibility (a few items in the “both” basket)

Question 27

how cognitive factors contribute to gender stereotype flexibility

Answer 27

• kids with early peaks in gender stereotype rigidity also showed early onset on gender stereotype flexibility
• kids with later peak in gender stereotype rigidity also had later onset of gender stereotype flexibility (flexibility reached by age 10)

Question 28

how social factors/societal values contribute to gender stereotype flexibility

Answer 28

• 6 year-olds show greater gender stereotype rigidity for masculine role and greater gender stereotype flexibility for feminine role
• mirrors adult responses to cross-gender behaviour

Question 29

How Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning would explain sex typing

Answer 29

parents/adults reinforce (ie. through smiling) gender conformity and punish (ie. through frowning) cross-gender behaviour

Question 30

How Bandura’s theory of observational learning would explain sex typing

Answer 30

• children observe models that conform to gender norms

- models can be parents, media, etc.

Question 31

gender constancy theory

Answer 31

• when children acquire an understanding of gender constancy, sex-typing increases
• old theory that isn’t well-supported by data

Question 32

gender schema theory

Answer 32

• once children acquire an understanding of gender identity, sex-typing increases
• there is data to support this

Question 33

universal stages of gender knowledge

Answer 33

• gender identity
• gender stability (across the lifespan)
• gender constancy

Question 34

gender identity stage

Answer 34

• acquired at 2.5-3 years

- question asked: “is this a boy or a girl?”

Question 35

gender stability

Answer 35

• acquired at 3-4 years

- question asked: “what will the girl be when she grows up? A mom or a dad?”

Question 36

gender constancy

Answer 36

• acquired at 5-7 years

- question asked: “if this girl cut her hair short, will she be a boy?”