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1
Q

cell type of nervous system

A

neurons and glia

2
Q

Neuron

A

Responsible for communication; transmit, receive and integrate information

3
Q

glia

A

support, nourish and protect cells, *they can be replaced unlike neurons

4
Q

3 main parts of the neuron

A

dendrites, cell body or soma, axon

5
Q

dendrite

A

branching region of neurons

6
Q

cell body or soma

A

contains the nucleus, genetic blueprint that guides the cells functions or producing proteins and chemical messages

7
Q

axon

A

“root” how it passes through (how its transmitted), moves along the axon, chemicals release at the end of the axon so the other cells get the message, covering the axon is a type of glia cell

8
Q

Myelin Sheath

A

insulates axons and speeds transmission of signals, they are white, it is why we say “white matter” just glia cells , information and messages passed much quicker with the myeline sheath

9
Q

multiple sclerosis

A

de-myelinating disease. auto immune disorders that attack the myeline sheath, problems with muscular movement, tend to come and go

10
Q

hodgkin and huxley

A

1952, first ones to explain nerve impulse, won the nobel prize

11
Q

hodgkin and huxley experiment

A

take squids (have large axons) can embed an electrode inside the neuron and outside to see what electro pulses are going on. fluid inside and outside the cell within the fluid there are electrically charged ions

12
Q

resting potential

A

stable negative charge -70mV

13
Q

neuron at rest

A

negative charge on inside compared to outside of cell

14
Q

ions involved neural impulse

A

potassium (k+) inside of the cell, sodium (Na+) on the outside

15
Q

Action Potential cause

A

spike caused by a change in the flow of the ions

16
Q

action potential ion flow

A

little gates or channel all along the axon open when stimulated to create a change in ion concentration, Na rushed in, once it moves past K goes out, resetting the resting potential

17
Q

What happens when the action potential moves along the axon

A

it reaches the terminal buttons which release neurotransmitters

18
Q

threshold for action potential

A

-50 mV

19
Q

Depolarization

A

Na+ ions rush into the cell making the inside of the cell positive

20
Q

Repolarization

A

K+ ions rush out of the cell, resetting the charge making it negative

21
Q

Hyperpolarization

A

during the time that so many k+ ions rush out of the cell it becomes more negative than the resting period, then the gates close and the concentration returns to resting potential

22
Q

transmit action potential to other cells

A

the ion flow at one location creates a charge that affects the neighbouring regions that spark the action potential of the next region…

23
Q

Speed of action potential

A

1 millisecond (100m/s)

24
Q

Relative refractory Period

A

where you could create a new action potential but the cell needs more stimulation, during hyperpolarization. Extra work to generate another action potential, threshold is bigger because the cell is so negative, so you would need a lot of excitatory stimulation

25
Q

Absolute Refractory period

A

depolarization refers to the fact that you cannot generate another action potential in the cell, no matter how strong the stimulus another action potential will not occur

26
Q

all or none law

A

refers to the fact that if we get to the -50mV we will have an action potential if we dont we will get nothing

27
Q

Characteristics of every action potential

A

same magnitude, same overall change is electrical energy were recording over the membrane, variable firing rate, travels extremely fast

28
Q

Variable Firing Rate

A

different cells will fire action potential at different rates (how many times a second does this happen in a cell)

29
Q

travels extremely fast

A

a myelin sheath allow for the information to move that fast 100m/sec, produce action potentials to code for different information. we need motor and sensory information to travel really quickly so that our body responds to prevent injury

30
Q

Where are neurotransmitters stored

A

synaptic vesicles

31
Q

Where are neurotransmitters released

A

into the synaptic cleft and binds to receptor sites, after action potential

32
Q

Post-synaptic potential

A

neurotransmitter produces a change in voltage at receptor site–> Excitatory, inhibitory, not all or none, can have a small effect, doesn’t spread across the cell. NOT the same as action potential

33
Q

Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential (ESPS)

A

depolarizing effect, brings us closer to an action potential, if enough will cause an action potential

34
Q

Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potential (ISPS)

A

(hyper)polarizing effect, brings us further away from an action potential

35
Q

Removal of neurotransmitter from the synapse

A

need to inactivate the neurotransmitter once its in the synaptic cleft; enzymes that will break down the neurotransmitter so it cant bind to the receptors on the post synaptic cell, take it back into the terminal buttoms and repackage them known as reuptake, because we want to retain that neurotransmitter

36
Q

flow of neurotransmitters

A
  1. synthesis and storage of neurotransmitter molecule in synaptic vesicles
  2. Release of neurotransmitter molecules into synaptic cleft
  3. Binding of neurotransmitters at receptor sites on postsynaptic membrane
  4. Inactivation by enzyme or removal by drifting away
  5. Reuptake of neurotransmitters by the presynaptic neuron
37
Q

Connection between neurons

A

pre-synaptic and the post-synaptic cells

38
Q

long term potentiation (LTP)

A

once the cell has been stimulated there can be prolonged period of time when the connection is strengthened for hours, days, etc.

39
Q

Pruning

A

refers the process by which excess neurons and synaptic connections are eliminated to increase efficiency of neuro transmissions

40
Q

different classes of neurotransmitters

A

small molecule: developed and synthesizes using amino acids, fast acting, developed from our diet
Neuropeptide: protein developed by the cell that are synthesized and can be used as neurotransmitters
other: behave very differently, some that are gases, when neurotransmitters are needed they move along the cell
50 neurotransmitters
hard to figure out if a chemical is a neurotransmitter

41
Q

Agonist

A

mimics neurotransmitter action. ex: Acetylcholine (agonist= nicotine)

42
Q

Antagonist

A

opposes action of a neurotransmitter. ex: acetylcholine (antagonist= curare)

43
Q

where do drugs have actions?

A

at neurotransmitter sites, some drugs will also bind at those receptor sites, act as a neurotransmitter (agonist), some will bind to the receptor site and oppose and prevent the action (antagonist)

44
Q

Acetylcholine

A

alerting neurotransmitter, activates motor neurons controlling skeletal muscles. attention, arousal, memory. decrease as we get older, it is thought that this is why we get slower and memories are worse

45
Q

Dopamine

A

pleasure transmitter, drugs that are abused usually related dopamine, voluntary movement , pleasurable emotions, decrease levels associated with parkinsons, overactivity at DA synapses associated with schiz
cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity at DA synapses

46
Q

Serotonin

A

linked to depression, drugs prevent uptake of natural serotonin, involved in sleep/ tired/ eating/ aggression.
abnormal levels may contribute to depression and OCD

47
Q

Norepinephrine

A

contributes to mood and arousal

cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity

48
Q

What common neurotransmitters are linked to depression

A

norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine

49
Q

Gaba

A

inhibitory transmitter, calming, 40% of synapses in our brain, dampen activity, decrease likely hood of action potential, linked to anxiety.

50
Q

Glutamate

A

only exhibitory, different drugs that bind to these receptor sites, alleviation of symptoms for a few weeks

51
Q

Endorphins

A

naturally occuring neurotransmitters that are associated with pain relief, pain drugs have actions as endorphins and bind effectively to these receptors sites and relieve pain better than our own body. Cannabis is linked to activity at these sites.

52
Q

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

A

NOT the brain or the spinal chord

53
Q

Somatic

A

voluntary part that allows us to make movements

54
Q

afferent

A

sensory neuro that bring info IN to the nervous system

55
Q

efferent

A

away from the nervous, OUT

56
Q

Autonomic

A

controls various activities automatically

57
Q

parasympathetic systems

A

returns body to resting state (rest and digest)

58
Q

sympathetic system

A

prepares body for action (fight or flight)

59
Q

Central Nervous System

A

central in terms of its essential for us to be alive

60
Q

Meninges

A

multilayered sac a brain and the spinal chord

61
Q

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

A

removes waste from the brain and also cushioning of the brain

62
Q

Spinal Chord Damage

A

Paraplegic, quadriplegic. spinal chord can still have its own reflexes

63
Q

paraplegic

A

loss of movement and sensation in lower limbs, different degrees

64
Q

Quadriplegic

A

loss of movement and sensation in all four limbs

65
Q

Electrical Recording

A

applying electrode to the outside of the skull, apply gel to allow those record electro brain activity

66
Q

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

A

frequency of electrical brain activity, doesnt tell us specifically where the activity is coming from

67
Q

Lesioning

A

destroy portion of brain to determine which behaviours are affected, damage to animal brains to figure out what is affected by the part of the brain. Stereotastic, we will damage this part of the brain and see what behaviour is affected. Can’t make a lesion that is permanent to a human

68
Q

Virtual Lesions

A

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) take a magnetic coil that can disrupt or enhance that process of the brain and see what behaviours are impacted

69
Q

Electrical Stimulation of the Brain

A

surgeons will use an electrode, small pulse, stimulate that part of the brain to make sure if they are removing a part that they wont remove a part that has a crucial function

70
Q

Computerized Tomography (CT)

A

takes x rays all around the head to give us a visualization of the brain, limited information given

71
Q

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

A

allows us to examine blood flow/ metabolic activity in a functioning brain, gives us functional information as well as parts if the brain that are specially active, involves an injection of a substance that has a radioactive tracker, used commonly in terms of looking at certain structures

72
Q

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and functional MRI

A

uses a combination of magnetic fields and radio waves and computerized techniques to give us an image of the brain, shows info the blood flow in the brain $$

73
Q

The brain

A

composed of a variety of structures and each structure is related to a different types of processes

74
Q

brain stem

A

hindbrain, midbrain, diencephalon

75
Q

hindbrain

A

lowest part of the brain, highest part of the spinal chord,

Medulla, pons, cerebellum, reticular formation,

76
Q

pons

A

bridge between the lowest order and higher order structures of the brain, sleep arousal

77
Q

reticular Formation

A

bond of fiber from lower order and stretches across the hindbrain: produces arousal in the brain and asleep

78
Q

Cerebellum

A

receives information from the sensory systems, fine motor movements

79
Q

Medulla

A

controls reflexes like sneezes and coughs, unconscious actions, breathing,

80
Q

Midbrain

A

integrates sensory process: allowed to orient information, owed to some of these processes -dopamine system

81
Q

dopamine System

A

in midbrain, voluntary movement

substantia nigra: deteriorates in people with parkinson, less and less neurons being used and less dopamine being used

82
Q

Diencephalon

A

Thalamus, hypothalamus

83
Q

thalamus

A

sensory waste system, all the info process will go to the thalamus which will then pass it on to other areas (rerouted), the only sense that doesn’t go through directly is smell but will eventually reach

84
Q

hypothalamus

A

basically regulates biological needs, automatic nervous system, executes function that we are not aware of or in control of. also involved in endocrine system which releases hormones

85
Q

Forebrain

A

largest and most complex: limbic system and cerebrum

extremely large in humans

86
Q

Limbic System

A

seat of our motion, pleasure sensors, fear, motivation etc.

87
Q

hippocampus

A

in limbic system, key role in memory, implicated in formation of long lasting memories, remembering about where we are in space

88
Q

Amygdala

A

in limbic system, formation of fear responses, key in terms of expressing fear.

89
Q

Cerebrum

A

responsible for complex thought, heavily folded outer layer; cerebral cortex Sulci, gyri

90
Q

Sulci

A

cracks in brain

91
Q

Gyri

A

bumps in brain

92
Q

two hemispheres

A

right and left, cracked appearence

93
Q

four lobes

A

frontal lobe, occipital, parietal, temporal

94
Q

Frontal Lobe

A

largest, motor movements, planning decision making, attend certain info, ignore others

95
Q

occipital lobe

A

involved in visual processes

96
Q

Parietal Lobe

A

Where our body is in space, sensation of touch, somatosensory cortex (different sensory information from the body get processed in that cortex)

97
Q

Temporal Lobe

A

Auditory cortex, our ability to use language and to communicate with speech is communicated to the left hemisphere

98
Q

Corpus Callosum

A

band of 200 million fibers, extend from one hemisphere to the other, important to transfer information from one hemisphere to the other, to stop epilepsy from spreading they would cut the corpus callosum, tested in animals they could still perform tasks

99
Q

Plasticity of the Brain

A

1) role of experience
2) reorganizing due to damage
3) neurogenesis in the hippocampus and the olfactory bulb

100
Q

plasticity

A

brain changes over time, reduced as we get older

101
Q

changes in the brain

A
some connections (synaptic) can be pruned, constantly changing (memories), experience results in change (ex. musicians)
produce new neuron connections when damage occurs in the body
102
Q

neurogenesis

A

New neurons being formed

103
Q

plasticity of structures in the brain

A

hippocampus new neurons being formed, humans and animals, olfactory bulb in animals new neurons are being formed, no evidence for new neurons being formed elsewhere in the brain

104
Q

damage to pathways in the brain

A

not repairing damaged neurons but creating new connections and forming new neurons in the brain, reorganizing existing ones

105
Q

Hemisphere control

A

left controls right, right controls left, one hemisphere can be removed if patient is young enough

106
Q

Cerebral laterality

A

tendency for neuron functions or cognitive processes to be specialized to one side of the brain (ex: left side: wernickes and broca– aphasia)

107
Q

brocas area

A

speech production (if damaged, can understand speech but can’t produce smooth (choppy, pauses))

108
Q

Wernickes area

A

speech comprehension temporal (can produce speech but it doesnt make sense, produce language but it makes no sense)

109
Q

Aphasia

A

damage to both wernickes and brocas

110
Q

split brain

A

severe corpus callosum due to epilepsy (removing a hemisphere)

111
Q

split brain patients

A

right or left visual field, unable to identify in one but can in the other, left visual field is processed in right, right visual field is processed in left hemisphere, if we present the information is present to right it will be processed in the left and vice versa, depending on which visual field we present the information will determine how capable they are of identifying.

112
Q

endocrine

A

glands secret chemicals into the blood stream, control bodily functioning, hormones. Brain communicate with the body through the endocrine system

113
Q

efficiency of endocrine

A

unlike action potential, hormone action happens over a longer timeframe and the hormones are distributed in various areas of the body

114
Q

structure in the brain that controls endocrine

A

hypothalamus–> pituitary gland

115
Q

Pituitary gland

A

master gland, will activate most hormones to places in the body that will secrete other hormones into the blood

116
Q

hormones

A

have multiple functions, depending on where they are having their actions will depend what they do

117
Q

Basic Principals of Genetics

A

chromosomes and DNA (23 pairs in humans)

118
Q

Genes

A

DNA segments that carry heredity info, except identical twins, everyone has a unique set of genes

119
Q

genetic information

A

codes for characteristics, blood type etc.

120
Q

How does DNA relate to our behaviour

A

in terms of genetic info contained in chromosomes, DNA segments will contain sequence for protein

121
Q

Adoption studies

A

look at how that person is similar to biological parents (genetics) vs how similar they are to their adoptive parents (environment)

122
Q

epigenetics

A

suggests that environment can have an impact on genetic expression in future generations, heritable changes to gene expression, passed from parents to their offspring that dont have anything to do with their DNA sequence. Parents choice in behaviour may have an affect on future generations