Changing Family Patterns

Question 1

What is stigma?

Answer 1

The negative label, social disapproval or shame attached to a person, action or relationship.

Question 2

Why has the stigma surrounding divorce decreased?

Answer 2

• The fact that divorce is more common begins to normalise it and reduces the stigma attached to it.
• In today’s society, it’s more likely regarded as a misfortune rather than shameful.

Question 3

Define secularisation.

Answer 3

The decline in the influence of religion in society.

Question 4

Why might secularisation lead to more divorce?

Answer 4

The traditional opposition of the churches to divorce carries less weight in society and people are less likely to be influenced by religious teachings when making decisions about personal matters.

Question 5

Why do couples have higher expectations of marriage today?

Answer 5

• The ideology of romantic love: the belief that marriage should be solely based on love.
• Higher expectations make couples less willing to tolerate an unhappy marriage.

Question 6

Why are functionalists optimistic about marriage despite higher divorce rates?

Answer 6

Most adults marry, and the high rate of re-marriage after divorce shows that although divorcees have become dissatisfied with a particular partner, they haven’t rejects marriage as an institution.

Question 7

What aspect of rising divorce rates do functionalists fail to explain?

Answer 7

Why it is mainly women rather than men who seek divorce.

Question 8

Give four reasons for women’s increased financial independence today.

Answer 8

• Women today are much more likely to be in paid work. The proportion of women working rose from 53% in 1971 to 67% in 2013.
• Although women generally still earn less than men, equal pay and anti-discrimination laws have helped to narrow the pay gap.
• Girls’ greater success in education now helps them achieve better-paid jobs that previous generations.
• The availability of welfare benefits means that women no longer have to remain financially dependent on their husbands.

Question 9

What role does the dual burden play in causing an increased divorce rate?

Answer 9

In the view of feminists, this (dual burden) has created a new source of conflict between husbands and wives, and this is leading to a higher divorce rate than in the past.

Question 10

According to radical feminists, why are women more likely to file for divorce?

Answer 10

Women are becoming conscious of patriarchal oppression and more confident about rejecting it.

Question 11

How does individualism contribute to a higher divorce rate?

Answer 11

• In modern society, traditional norms, such as the duty to remain with the same partner for life, lose their hold over individuals.
• Individuals become unwilling to remain with a partner if the relationship fails to deliver personal fulfillment.

Question 12

What is the effect of high divorce rate from a new right perspective?

Answer 12

• Creates a growing underclass of welfare-dependent female lone parents who are a burden on the state and it leaves boys without the adult male role model needed.
• Results in poorer health and educational outcomes for children.

Question 13

What is the effect of high divorce rate from a feminist perspective?

Answer 13

It shows that women are breaking free from the oppression of the patriarchal nuclear family.

Question 14

What is the effect of high divorce rate from a postmodernist and individualisation thesis perspective?

Answer 14

• Individuals now have the freedom to choose to end a relationship when it no longer meets their needs.
• Major cause for greater family diversity.

Question 15

What is the effect of high divorce rate from a functionalist perspective?

Answer 15

• Result of peoples higher expectations of marriage today.

- High rate of re-marriage shows people’s continuing commitment to the idea of marriage.

Question 16

What is the effect of high divorce rate from a interactionist perspective?

Answer 16

• Aim to understand what divorce means to the individual.
• Morgan: we can’t generalise about the meaning of divorce bc every individuals interpretation is different.
• Mitchell and Goody (interviews): one person describe the day her father left as the best day of her life. Another said she never recovered.

Question 17

What is the effect of high divorce rate from the personal life perspective?

Answer 17

They accept that divorce can cause problems, such as financial difficulties and lack of daily contact between children and non-resident parents.

Question 18

Identify four changes in the pattern of marriage in recent years.

Answer 18

• Fewer people marrying: marriage at lowest since 1920s. 2012: 175,000 first marriages (both partners) - less than half for 1970.
• More remarriages. 2012: 1/3 of all marriages were remarriages. Leading to ‘serial monogamy’.
• People marrying later: average age of first marriage rose by 7 yrs between 1971+2012, when it stood at 32 y/o (men) + 30 y/o (women).
• Couples are less likely to marry in church. 1981: 60% of weddings were conducted w/ religious ceremonies. 2012: 30%.

Question 19

Summarise the following reason for changes in first marriages:
- Changing attitudes to marriage.

Answer 19

• Less pressure to marry + more freedom in relationship choice.
• Widespread belief: quality of couples relationship more important than legal status.
• Norm of everyone getting married has weakened.

Question 20

Summarise the following reason for changes in first marriages:
- Secularisation.

Answer 20

• Churches in favour of marriage but influence weakening.
• People feel freer to not marry.
• 2001 Census: 3% young people w/ no religion were married, against 17% w/ a religion.

Question 21

Summarise the following reason for changes in first marriages:
- Declining stigma attached to alternatives to marriage.

Answer 21

• Cohabitation, remaining single + children outside marriage widely regarded as acceptable.
• Pregnancy no longer automatically means ‘shotgun marriage’
• 1989: 70%

Question 22

Summarise the following reason for changes in first marriages:
- Changes in the position of women.

Answer 22

• Better educational and career prospects
• Many women less economically dependent on men
• Greater freedom to not marry
• Feminists: marriage is an oppressive patriarchal institution
• This may dissuade some women from marrying

Question 23

Summarise the following reason for changes in first marriages:
- Fear of divorce.

Answer 23

With the rising divorce rate, some may be put off marrying because they see the likelihood of marriage ending in divorce.

Question 24

Why have remarriages increased?

Answer 24

• The rise in the number of divorce.

- Rising number of divorcees provides supply of people available to remarry.

Question 25

Why are couples marrying at a later age?

Answer 25

• Young people postponing marriage to spend longer in full-time education.
• Career first
• More couples cohabiting before marrying.

Question 26

Give two reasons why couples today may be less likely to get married in church.

Answer 26

• Secularisation

- Many churches refuse to marry divorcees and divorcees may have less desire to marry in church.

Question 27

Define cohabitation.

Answer 27

Cohabitation involves an unmarried couple in a sexual relationship living together.

Question 28

Note four patterns of cohabitation.

Answer 28

• Cohabiting couples with children are a fast growing family type.
• 2.9 million cohabiting heterosexual couples in Britain. About 1 in 8 adults are cohabiting (double number in 1996).
• Estimated 69,000 same-sex cohabiting couples.
• About a fifth of all those cohabiting are ‘serial cohabitants’ who have had one or more previous cohabitations.

Question 29

Give four reasons for the increase in cohabitation.

Answer 29

• The decline in stigma attached to sex outside marriage. 1989: 44% agreed that ‘premarital sex isn’t wrong at all’. 2012: 65% agreed.
• Young are more likely to accept cohabitation.
• Increased career opportunities for women: less need for the financial security of marriage + freer to opt for cohabitation.
• Secularisation: young people w/ no religion are more likely to cohabit than those with a religion.

Question 30

Identify two different ways in which cohabitation may be seen by couples.

Answer 30

• A step on the way to getting married.

- A permanent alternative to marriage.

Question 31

Identify three rights that are the same for same-sex couples and heterosexual couples.

Answer 31

• Since 2002, cohabiting couple have had the same right to adopt as married couples.
• 2004 Civil Partnership Act gave same-sex couples similar legal rights to married couples in respect of pensions, inheritance, tenancies and property.
• Since 2014, same-sex couples have been able to marry.

Question 32

Explain what Weeks means by ‘chosen families’.

Answer 32

A group of people who you’re emotionally close to and consider ‘family’ despite not being biologically or legally related.

Question 33

According to Weston, how have same-sex relationships changed since the 1970s?

Answer 33

Many gay couples are now deciding to cohabit as stable partners.

Question 34

What has been the impact of legal acceptance on same-sex couples?

Answer 34

• Effect on same-sex relationships of a legal framework e.g civil partnerships.

Allan and Crow:

• B/c of absence of framework until recently, same-sex partners had to negotiate commitment + responsibilities more than married couples.
• May have made same sex relationships more flexible and less stable than heterosexual relationships.

Question 35

Why might some gay people see legal recognition of same-sex relationships as limiting?

Answer 35

• Fear it may limit the flexibility and negotiability of relationships.
• Rather than adopting heterosexual relationship norms, they wish their relationships to be different.

Question 36

Note the three patterns of one-person households today.

Answer 36

• Big rise in number of people living alone. 2013: Almost 3 in 10 households (7.7 mil people) contained only 1 person. Nearly 3x figure in 1961.
• 40% of all one-person households are over 65. Pensioner one-person households doubled since 1961, non pensioners tripled. Men under 65 more likely to live alone.
• By 2033, over 30% of the adult population will be single (unpartnered and never-married).

Question 37

Give two reasons for the increased number of one-person households.

Answer 37

• Increase in separation and divorce (especially among men under 65). Following divorce, children more likely to live with mother, father is more likely to leave family home.
• Decline in numbers marrying, and trend towards marrying later, also means more people remaining single. ‘Creative singlehood’ - the deliberate choice to live alone.

Question 38

Give two reasons why couples may choose to live apart.

Answer 38

• Wanting to keep their own home, because of a previous troubled relationship.
• ‘Too early’ to cohabit.

Question 39

Note the three patterns of childbearing today.

Answer 39

• 47% of children born outside of marriage: over twice as many in 1986. However, nearly all these births jointly registered by both parents. In most cases, parents are cohabiting.
• Women having children later: between 1971 and 2012, average age at birth of first child rose by 4 years to 28.1 years.
• More women remaining childless: It’s predicted that 1/4 of those born in 1973 will be childless when they reach 45.

Question 40

Give two reasons for the changes in patterns of childbearing.

Answer 40

• Reasons for increase in births outside marriage include: decline in stigma + increase in cohabitation. E.g 28% of 25-34 y/o now think marriage should come before parenthood.
• Later age women have children, smaller family sizes and more women remaining childless reflects the fact that women now have more options than motherhood.

Question 41

Give two reasons for the rise in the number of lone-parent families.

Answer 41

• Increase in divorce and separation

- Increase of never-married women have children

Question 42

Give three reasons why lone-parent families tend to be headed by women.

Answer 42

• Widespread belief that women are by nature suited to an ‘expressive’ or nurturing role.
• Divorce courts usually give custody of children to mothers.
• Men may be less willing to give up work to care for children.

Question 43

Give two reasons why some women may be ‘single by choice’.

Answer 43

• Jean Renvoize: Professional women able to support their children without the fathers involvement.
• Ellis Cashmore: Some w/c mothers with less earning power may chose to live on welfare benefits without a partner, often b/c they’d experienced abuse.

Question 44

What reason does Murray give for the increase in lone-parent families?

Answer 44

Over-generous welfare state providing benefits for unmarried mothers and their children.

Question 45

What is meant by a ‘perverse incentive’?

Answer 45

Welfare state rewards irresponsible behaviour, such as having children without being able to provide for them.

Question 46

What is meant by the term ‘dependency culture’?

Answer 46

People assume that the state will support them and their children.

Question 47

According to Murray, what is the solution to the dependency culture?

Answer 47

Abolish welfare benefits. This would reduce the dependency culture that encourages births outside of marriage.

Question 48

Give four reasons why lone-parent families are likely to be in poverty.

Answer 48

• Lack of affordable childcare prevents lone parent families from working: 60% unemployed. 2x as high as among women with partners.
• Inadequate welfare benefits.
• Most lone parents are women, who generally earn less than men.
• Failures of fathers to pay maintenance, especially if they have formed a second family that they have to support.

Question 49

Why are the children in step-families more likely to be from the woman’s previous relationship rather than the man’s?

Answer 49

Mothers usually gain custody of children.

Question 50

Why might step-families face poverty?

Answer 50

There’s often more children and because the stepfather may also have to support children from a previous relationship.

Question 51

What tensions might exist in step-families?

Answer 51

Lack of clear social norms about how individuals should behave in such families.

Question 52

Suggest two reasons why black families are more likely to be lone-parent families than families in other ethnic groups.

Answer 52

• Family disorganisation that can be traced back to slavery. When couples were sold separately, children stayed with the mother.
• Male unemployment and poverty: men less able to provide for their family, resulting in higher rates of desertion or marital breakdown.

Question 53

Why does Mirza argue that the statistics on lone-parent black families may not reflect the true situation?

Answer 53

Higher rate isn’t the result of disorganisation, but rather reflect the high value that black women place on independence.

Question 54

Identify two reasons why Asian households tend to be larger than those other ethnic groups.

Answer 54

• Higher proportion are in childbearing age groups compared with the pop. as a whole.
• Value placed on extended family in Asian culture.

Question 55

Summarise the evidence from the following study for the continued existence of the extended family today:
- Charles, study of Swansea.

Answer 55

Classic three-generation family living together under one roof is now ‘all but extinct’. Only exceptions were among the city’s Bangladeshi community.

Question 56

Summarise the evidence from the following study for the continued existence of the extended family today:
- Willmott

Answer 56

Continues to exist as a ‘dispersed extended family’, where relatives are geographically separated but maintain frequent contact e.g visits and phone called.

Question 57

Summarise the evidence from the following study for the continued existence of the extended family today:
- Chamberlain, study of Caribbean families in Britain.

Answer 57

Despite being geographically dispersed, they continue to provide support. She describes them as ‘multiple nuclear families’ with close & frequent contact between members, who often make a big contribution to childrearing.

Question 58

Summarise the evidence from the following study for the continued existence of the extended family today:
- Bell

Answer 58

Performs important functions for its members.
Example: Bell (study in Swansea) found both w/c and m/c families had emotional bonds with kin and relied on them for support:
- M/c: financial support from father to son
- W/c: more frequent contact (lived closer) & domestic help from mothers to daughters.

Question 59

Identify two features of the ‘beanpole’ family.

Answer 59

• Extended vertically (through 3 or more generations): grandparents, parents, children.
• Not extended horizontally: doesn’t involve aunts, uncles, cousins etc.

Question 60

Which two demographic changes have encouraged the ‘beanpole’ family.

Answer 60

• Increased life expectancy: means more surviving grandparents and great-grandparents.
• Smaller family sizes: mean people have fewer siblings and thus fewer horizontal ties.

Question 61

List the order of obligation to help with household tasks that Cheal identifies.

Answer 61

“Help should be given: first, by a spouse; second, by a daughter; third, by a daughter-in-law; fourth, by a son; fifth, by other relatives; and sixth, by non-relatives.”

Question 62

Which gender is more likely to be chosen as a caregiver?

Answer 62

Daughter or daughter-in-law is preferred if the husband isn’t available.