Ch. 6 Juvenile Delinquency

Question 1

Classical School (Theory of Crime)

Answer 1

CLASSICAL SCHOOL Theory of Crime says that FREE WILL is the PRIMARY CAUSE of a CRIME.

• Unless they are being robbed of their free will (e.g. Being seriously mentally ill), people CHOOSE to commit criminal behavior.

Question 2

Positivist School (Theory of Crime)

Answer 2

POSITIVIST SCHOOL Theory of Crime looks for influences BEYOND free will.

• People still choose to commit crime, but their choice is influenced by numerous predetermining factors. (e.g. social enviroment such as crime-ridden neighborhood or deviant peer group)

Question 3

Juvenile Crime Facts

Answer 3

• The majority of crimes committed by juveniles are nonviolent
• Most juveniles age out of crime.
• ​Juvenile crimes are on average less serious.
• Juvenile crime has DECREASED since the 1990s.
• From a psychological perspective, there are two groups of juveniles:
  
  • Those who continue offending well into their adult years.
    
    • The group typically demonstrated problem behavior very early in their lives. ​​​
  • Those who commit a one-time, very serious offense.
    
    • This type of one-time offending is rare
• Approximately one-fifth of those arrested go to trial.
• Those sentenced to jail or prison are not representative of the “true” criminal population, because many true criminals go undetected and/or unpunished – as many as 86%.
• Most crime is nonviolent – drug abuse violations, driving under the influence, and larceny-theft.
• Juveniles as a group are responsible for a small percentage of arrests compared with adults, but they are arrested disproportionately compared with other age groups.
• Offenders under 18 begin in family court but can be moved to criminal court, where a jury, the media, and the public can be present.
• All States allow Juveniles to be tried as adults under certain conditions.
• Most serious offenders REDUCE their offending OVER TIME (especially when MONITORED after SHORT-TERM incarceration).
• Long-term incarceration is INEFFECTIVE at reducing RECIDIVISM.
• Even adolescents who have committed serious offenses are NOT necessarily on track for adult criminal careers.
• Drug use and abuse in EARLY adolescence (12-14) is associated with antisocial behavior. EXCESSIVE USE at all ages was also associated with antisocial behavior.
• Juveniles (ages 12 to 17) who regularly smoke cigarettes and drink alcohol are far more likely to use a variety of illicit drugs.
• Male juveniles arrested for the sale/manufacturing and possession of marijuana combined increased from 55.1 percent of the arrests of male juveniles in 1994 to 74 percent in 2003.

65% have a mental health issue

20% have a serious mental problem

Juvenile Delinquent <18

Child Delinquent 7-12, 2-3x more likely to commit serious and chronic offenses.

Pennsylvania Law – 10 years = minimum age to be adjudicated

15 years and older who commit crime with deadly weapon excluded form definition of delinquent act

Anyone charged with murder is automatically excluded from juvenile court regardless of age.

PA has disproportionate number of offenders under 18 and under 15.

Juvenile offenders were 10% of all arrests in IS, 7% of all homicides, 30% of all arson, 20%, robberies, 17% of sex offenses.

Repetitive offenders engage at an early age than one-time offenders.

in 2018, 728K juvenile arrests, 30% female, 30% younger than age 15.

Juvenile crime down Down 60% since the 1990s

Question 4

Copycat or Contagion Effect

Answer 4

A tendency in some people to model or copy an activity portrayed in the entertainment or news media. It is similar to social learning. “Copycat followers” often seek similar widespread recognition and significance as the models.

Question 5

Deterrent Effect

Answer 5

Opposite of copycat/contagion. Crimes are prevented because someone is discouraged from carrying them out as a result of the media report.

Question 6

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

Answer 6

Aggression is the result of blocking or frustrating a person’s efforts to attain a goal– Frustration always precedes aggression, while frustration prompts a behavior that may or may not be aggressive, any aggressive behavior is the result of frustration, making frustration not sufficient, but a necessary condition for aggression

Question 7

Status Offenses

Answer 7

STATUS OFFENSES are offenses commited by juviniles that are forbidden only due to their AGE – like underage drinking and skipping school.

• Not technically crimes.

Question 8

Incorrigibility

Answer 8

INCORRIGIBILITY is when a juvenile is beyond the control of one’s parents or guardians

• This Is a STATUS OFFENSE – an offense only due to their age.

Question 9

Definitions of Delinquency

Answer 9

• ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR includes more than just CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR (which is a legal definition) and is often used rather than CONDUCT DISORDER.
• STATUS OFFENSES are offenses only due to age (ex: Underage Drinking)
• YOUTHFUL OFFENDERS are older than 18 but younger than 21 or early 20s. This is a designation only in some states but it offers these individuals some leniency.
• CONDUCT DISORDER represents a group of behaviors characterized by habitual misbehavior, such as stealing, setting fires, running away from home, skipping school, destroying property, fighting, being cruel to animals and people, and frequently telling lies.
  
  • Psychological definitions of delinquency usually include conduct disorder, antisocial behavior, externalizing disorder, or some form of mental disorder.
• CHILD DELINQUENTS are juveniles between ages 7 and 12, who have committed a delinquent act according to criminal law.
  
  • Children younger than age 13 = about 9% of all juvenile arrests.

Question 10

PINS and CHINS

Answer 10

PINS = Person In Need of Supervision

CHINS = Child In Need of Supervision

Question 11

Gender Difference Facts

Answer 11

• BOYS far outnumber girls in most types of offending, but most particularly in violent offending.
• For BOYS, the greatest risk factor was the LACK of SELF CONTROL.
• RUNAWAY figures are about equal for girls and boys.
  
  • But GIRLS are far more likely than boys to run away BECAUSE OF VICTIMIZATION in the home and ultimately to take up prostitution.
• GIRLS (among all juvenile arrests) accounted for 30% of total arrests, 18% of the violent crime, 38% of the property crime, and 45% of juvenile larceny-theft (shoplifting)
• Particularly for GIRLS, a history of violent victimization, in or outside the home, seems to haunt both juveniles and adults.
• 92% of juvenile female offenders reported that they had been subjected to some form of emotional, physical, and/or sexual abuse in or outside the home.
  
  • 25% reported they had been shot or stabbed one or more times.
• For GIRLS, the greatest risk factors were FAMILY DISRUPTION and PEER ANTISOCIAL behavior.

Question 12

Moffitt’s Development Theory

Answer 12

MOFFITT’S DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY identified two developmental paths: Life-Course-Persistent (LCP) offenders and Adolescent-Limited (AL) Offenders.

• LIFE-COURSE PERSISTENT OFFENDERS (LCP) are children who begin a lifelong pattern of delinquency and adult crime at a very early age, probably around age three or even younger.
  
  • Continue their antisocial ways across all kinds of conditions and situations.
  • Gets WORSE as they get older
  • Show ELEVATED AGGRESSIVE behavior and as a result, are REJECTED and avoided by childhood peers.
  • Almost exclusively male (98%)
• ADOLESCENCE-LIMITED OFFENDERS (AL) begin offending during their adolescent years and generally stop offending somewhere around their 18th birthday.
  
  • The GREAT MAJORITY of juvenile offenders follow this path.
  • The frequency and violence level of offending during the teen years may be as high as that of the LCP youth.
  • AL Offenses tend to SYMBOLIZE ADULT PRIVILEGE (Drug and Alcohol offenses) and demonstrate autonomy from parental control (runaway and truancy). They are also likely to be crimes that SEEK PROFIT (theft).
  • IN CONTRAST to LCP, AL children have learned to get along with others.
  • AL children also have satisfactory academic, social, and interpersonal skills, which allows them to take a new path as they grow into adults.

Question 13

Steinberg’s Dual System Model

Answer 13

STEINBERG’S DUAL SYSTEMS MODEL (of RISK TAKING) says that the adolescent brain matures along two different paths: a COGNITIVE and a SOCIOEMOTIVE one. Adolescents reach peak logical reasoning (the cognitive brain) at approximately age 16, while not reaching their psychosocial maturity (the socioemotional) until as late as 25 years old. This MATURITY GAP creates an environment of EXCESSIVE RISK-TAKING during adolescents.

• COGNITIVE CONTROL SYSTEM – The cognitive control system is found mainly in the prefrontal and parietal regions of the brain and is involved in logical reasoning, understanding, and learning.
  
  • Matures at about 16 years old
• SOCIOEMOTIVE CONTROL SYSTEM – The socioemotional system is located in the limbic system and the midbrain areas, including the amygdala, and is a processing center for reward-seeking, social information, and emotional reactions that are more sensitive and easily aroused during puberty.
  
  • Matures much later – around 25 years old

Question 14

Coercion Developmental Theory

Answer 14

Keywords: Like Moffitt’s Theory but BLAMES the PARENTS

COERCION DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY is VERY SIMILAR to Moffitt’s Developmental Theory with ONE KEY DIFFERENCE. Both theories see two trajectories to adolescent offending, but COERCION THEORY blames the PARENTS while MOFFIT focuses on the specific characteristics of the child.

• Patterson’s COERCION THEORY identifies TWO TRAJECTORIES:
  
  • EARLY ONSET (like MOFFITT’s LCP), which starts early and continues into adulthood. Worse than LATE ONSET and caused by the MOST SEVERELY INEPT PARENTING.
  • LATE ONSET (like MOFFITT’s AL), which starts in adolescence and stops at the end of adolescence. INEPT PARENTING is still the cause of this, but it is LESS SEVERE than that involved with EARLY ONSET.
• Says that POOR PARENTING (poor parental monitoring of child activities, disruptive family transitions (e.g., divorce), and inconsistent parental discipline) are major psychosocial contributors to early-onset delinquency.
• Antisocial behavior PROGRESSES from FAULTY PARENT-TODDLER INTERACTIONS to similar interactions with teachers, peers, and others in the child’s environment.
• The coercive child (similar to the aggressive child who is characterized as an LCP in Moffitt’s theory) is then rejected by noncoercive peers, driving her to associate with peers who are similarly coercive, which contributes to the development of antisocial behavior.
• Says Gender Differences in aggression are established by age 5 and continue throughout life.
• Says that GIRLS display less antisocial behavior because they are LESS-FREQUENTLY involved in coercive parent-child interactions
• Unlike for boys, for girls, there are fewer highly antisocial, same-gender peers to model or with whom they can associate. So their antisocial behavior shows up only AFTER they begin to associate with BOYS (who provide much greater antisocial influence), which tends to be during adolescence.

Question 15

Callous-Unemotional Trait Theory

Answer 15

CALLOUS-UNEMOTIONAL TRAIT THEORY (CU) says that some children and adolescents showed a LACK OF EMPATHIC CONCERN for others, LIMITED CAPACITY FOR GUILT, and POVERTY OF EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION – traits highly characteristic of behavioral patterns typically found in ADULT PSYCHOPATHS.

• CU individuals are NOT AFRAID OF BEING PUNISHED for their aggressive actions.
• They view AGGRESSION as an EFFECTIVE MEANS for dominating others.
• CU traits in childhood are predictive of lifelong serious, violent offending.
• Cruelty to animals was one of the indicators designating CU traits

Question 16

Prevention, Intervention, and Treatment Programs

Answer 16

Effective Treatment Programs

• Individual counseling
• Interpersonal skills
• Teaching family homes
• Behavioral programs
• Community residential programs
• Multiple services approach

Characteristics of Prevention, Intervention, and Treatment Programs:

• They BEGIN EARLY
  
  • Seriously Antisocial children can be identified before Age four. Begins even earlier with kids facing many risk factors.
  • There is a mysterious jump in antisocial behavior between 1st and 2nd grade, so prevention programs should begin before this. Later intervention would necessarily have to be more intensive.
• They FOLLOW DEVELOPMENTAL PRINCIPLES
  
  • Effective programs are based on principles derived from well-designed research that follows the child through each stage of development. This is necessary because the risk factors change with each stage of development.
• They FOCUS ON MULTIPLE SETTINGS AND SYSTEMS
  
  • All risk factors (family, peers, environment, disabilities, etc.) should be addressed and treated otherwise, untreated risk factors could overwhelm the work being done with any limited treated factors.
• They RESPECT CULTURAL BACKGROUNDS
  
  • It has been shown that retaining one’s cultural identity is critical to mental health.
• They FOCUS ON FAMILY FIRST
  
  • Like it or not, FAMILY IS THE CENTER OF ALL LIFE – the single most impactful influence that any person has. As a result, the HEALTH of the FAMILY ENVIRONMENT and particularly the parent-child interaction is KEY to all that is good.

NOTE: Though PEERS have a profound effect on individuals, BRINGING HIGH-RISK PEERS TOGETHER may have actually served to increase contact with deviant peers and, in the long run, exacerbated their antisocial involvement. In essence, PEERS MAKE IT WORSE.

Question 17

Classification of Prevention and Treatment Programs

Answer 17

Keywords: PRIMARY PREVENTS, SELECTIVE INTERVENES, TERTIARY TREATS

Classification Prevention & Treatment Programs

• Primary Prevention
• Selective (secondary) Prevention
• Tertiary Prevention (intervention)

The Classification of Prevention and Treatment Programs are broken into three categories:

1. PRIMARY PREVENTION (or UNIVERSAL) are designed to PREVENT delinquent behavior before any signs of the behavioral pattern emerge.
   
   • Focuses on ENHANCING POSITIVE FACTORS (rather than reducing negative risk factors)
   • RESILIENCY is the KEY, fostered by “STRENGTH-BASED” programs.​ (See card on RESILIENCY)
   • Before Age 7
   • Ex: Prenatal Care, Maternal and infant care and nutrition, family management programs, and resiliency.
2. SELECTIVE PREVENTION (or SECONDARY) are designed to INTERVENE with specific children who are at high risk and display early signs of antisocial behavior but have not yet been classified as delinquent by the court.
   
   • Benefit: Focuses on youths who should benefit the most from the programs.
   • Disadvantage: is that these youths become labeled.
   • In this realm, Only FAMILY INTERVENTION and RESTORATIVE JUSTICE (victims confront offenders) have shown a positive effect on recidivism. See card on “Restorative Justice”.
3. TERTIARY PREVENTION (or TREATMENT) are designed to TREAT – those programs designed to reduce serious, habitual delinquent, or antisocial behavior by adjudicated delinquents.
   
   • Occurs only AFTER serious antisocial behavior has taken place.
   • Effectiveness of Treatment Approaches is UNCLEAR.
   • As with most treatments, the ones with the greatest potential are those that take a MULTI-FACTOR approach, addressing ALL risk factors AND Positive factors.
   • Treatments must also be intensive and long-lasting to have any impact.
   • TRADITIONAL RESIDENTIAL TREATMENT – The traditional “rehabilitation center,” where youths are incarcerated for extended periods of time, representing the “last stop” for youths with whom less restrictive community settings have been tried.
     
     • Higher rate of Recidivism than counterparts who received family and community-based treatment.
     • Two forms of INTENSIVE TREATMENT for JUVENILES:
       
       1. MULTI-SYSTEMATIC THERAPY (MST) – for serious delinquents, addresses many risk factors but FOCUSES on the FAMILY.
          
          • It is intensive and time-limited.
          • Unfortunately, MST is NO MORE EFFECTIVE with VIOLENT behavior than any other intensive treatment regimens. But it WAS MORE EFFECTIVE with property crimes and EXTERNALIZING DISORDERS (Ex: defiance of authority figures, hostility, intentionally annoying others)
          • As a result of this limited success, it is still considered the most successful approach to treating juveniles in a community setting.
          • MST also has a beneficial effect on the offender’s siblings.
       2. FUNCTIONAL FAMILY THERAPY (FFT) – similar to MST, EXCEPT that the focus here is almost exclusively on the FAMILY, putting far fewer resources into other influences like peers and neighborhood.
          
          • Though FFT is Far less intensive than MST, the results were essentially the SAME with regard to Recidivism.

Question 18

Resiliency

Answer 18

RESILIENCY has been targeted as a KEY characteristic to ensure a productive future and guard against future antisocial behavior. Researchers targeted four resilience factors for therapeutic intervention:

1. POSITIVE PEER RELATIONS – prosocial interactions, peer acceptance, and support.
2. SELF-EFFICACY – the belief that one can achieve desired goals through one’s own actions (CENTRAL TO RESILIENCY).
3. CREATIVITY – in this context refers to individual talent to create an artistic or other communicative product, encouraging individuals to express themselves and their experiences symbolically.
4. COHERENCE – refers to the ways in which people evaluate themselves and their circumstances both cognitively and emotionally. It involves finding meaning to your past, present, and future life through POSITIVE THINKING, ACCEPTING THE REALITY of bad experiences, AVOIDING SELF-BLAME for UNCONTROLLABLE CIRCUMSTANCES, and FINDING ADAPTIVE PATHS FORWARD.

Question 19

Restorative Justice

Answer 19

RESTORATIVE JUSTICE is when the victim of a crime is allowed to communicate with their offender to explain the real impact of the crime. It empowers victims by giving them a voice. It also HOLDS OFFENDERS TO ACCOUNT FOR WHAT THEY HAVE DONE forcing them to take responsibility and make amends.

• Research shows that this is very effective as a SELECTIVE THERAPY for offenders.

Question 20

Juvenile Homicide Offenders

Answer 20

• Juvenile offenders commit 7.5% of murders in US.
• 90% of Juvenile homicides are committed by those between 15-17.
• Majority of homicide acts by juveniles took place during either general altercation episodes (including gang warfare) or the commission of a felony.
• 9.7 percent of offenders arrested for homicide were under 18 (2.7% were under 15).
• GIRLS, compared to boys, are significantly MORE LIKELY to kill family members, younger victims, female victims, intimate partners, and their offspring.
• Significant language handicaps appear to be the most prominent learning problems among juvenile murderers.
• Lack of parental monitoring is also a prominent factor in the- backgrounds of juvenile homicide offenders.
• 84-88% of juvenile murderers had already been diagnosed with CONDUCT DISORDER.

Question 21

School Violence

Answer 21

• School Violence Includes:
  
  • Bullying
  • Threats
  • Assaults
  • Weapon use
  • Electronic aggression
  • Gang violence
• Victims often suffer:
  
  • Decreased self-esteem
  • Truancy
  • Depression
  • Post-traumatic stress disorder
  • In extreme cases, suicide & violent retaliation
• Myths about School Violence
  
  • School violence is an epidemic
  • All school shooters fit a profile
  • Always a loner
  • Exclusively motivated by revenge
  • Just snapped & no one knew
• School Shooter Characteristics
  
  • Typical Shooter
    
    • Male
    • Social/peer rejection
  • Major Risk Factors
    
    • Psychological problems
    • Fascination w/ instruments of destruction
    • Morbid fascination w/ death
  • Psychological Risk Factors
    
    • Low impulse control
    • Lack of empathy
    • Serious depression
    • Aggressiveness
    • Antisocial behaviors
    • Lack of attachment to school
• 7.4% of high school students reported being threatened with a weapon on school property (5.2% of Females, 9.5% of males)
• Youths are more likely to be murdered AWAY from school.
• Juvenile crime occurs MOST FREQUENTLY in hours IMMEDIATELY AFTER School.
• School shootings statistically RARE. And, despite increases in general mass shootings, studies have found NO INCREASE increase in school shooting incidents.
• Investigations of SCHOOL SHOOTERS have often found that two characteristics emerge:
  
  • PEER REJECTION and
  • SOCIAL REJECTION.
  • Also prominent in the background of school shooters was a history of:
    
    • ANIMAL CRUELTY
    • INTEREST IN GUNS
    • DEPRESSION
    • OBSESSION WITH DEATH
    • LEAKAGE (Assailants purposely broadcast their intentions, particularly to their peers)
    • Were BULLIED (targets were often those who bullied or rejected the offender)
• ​​School attachment and bonding appear to be crucial in any strategy designed to reduce school violence.
• Looking at the CULTURES of SCHOOLS that were victims of school shootings, Four common themes emerged. In those schools where a shooting occurred, there was evidence of:

1. an inflexible culture – created among many students a sense of not belonging.
2. Inequitable discipline – teachers and administrators apply school rules differently to different groups of students.
3. Tolerance for disrespectful behavior – created among many students a sense of not belonging.
4. A code of silence – when students become resistant to reporting threats because of fear of repercussions or lack of an adequate or clearly defined reporting system.

Question 22

Bullying & Cyberbullying

Answer 22

• Bullying occurs when there’s an imbalance of power between perpetrator & victim.
• Disabled children 3X more likely to be bullied
  
  • 8 of 10 learning disabled are bullied
• Bullying Intervention Strategies
  
  • Whole school programs
  • Classroom curricula
  • Target at-risk individuals (bullies)
  • Skill building
  • Conflict mediation strategies
  • Prosocial skills
• Cyberbullying
  
  • 60% of victims are female
  • 20% of children are cyber-bullied
  • Isolating and socially terrifying
• Bullying Myths
  
  • All bullies are rejected by their peers & have no friends
  • All bullies have low self-esteem
  • Being a bullying victim builds character
  • Many childhood victims of harassment become violent as teens
  • Bullying involves only perpetrators & victims
• Bullying: Contributing Causes
  
  • Feeling powerless
  • Very low or very high self-esteem
  • Obtain admiration & attention of friends
  • Fear of being left out
  • Inability to empathize with others
  • Taking out angry feelings
  • Culture of aggression & bullying
  • Being bullied themselves
• Bullying is a common problem
  
  • 70% of middle & high school students experienced bullying
  • 20-40% report bullied or been part of bullying
  • 27% harassed for not conforming to sexually stereotypical behavior
  • 5-15% of chronic victims
  • 7-12% chronic bullies
• The ANONYMITY of Cyberspace facilitates DEINDIVIDUATION (loss of individuality), which decreases the sense of responsibility for one’s actions.
  
  • Tends to target LONERS
  • CONSEQUENCES are dire for the victims – depression, emotional distress, and even suicide.
• One study showed that ONLY 30% of CYBER-BULLIES were ALSO TRADITIONAL bullies and so the internet introduces an all-new brand of bullying to a new set of people that might not otherwise be a bully.
• Most cyberbullies are GIRLS as are most victims of cyberbullying.
• Most cyberbullying goes unreported.

Question 23

Shoplifting

Answer 23

SHOPLIFTING is the MOST COMMON juvenile court referral for youths under age 15.

• ​Those who shoplifted showed a LOWER MORAL DEVELOPMENT (i.e. the moral development of someone much younger) than what was expected for their age.
  
  • Essentially, their rationalization for shoplifting is an answer that a 5-year-old might say, “If I didn’t get caught it would be ok.”

Question 24

Criminal vs Juvenile Justice System

Answer 24

JUVENILE Primary purpose

Accountability

Rehabilitation

Treatment

Prevention

Criminal (Adult)

• Prosecuted for crimes
• Emphasis: punishment
• Right to a jury trial

Juvenile Justice

• Prosecuted for delinquent acts
• Emphasis: rehabilitation
• No jury trial rights
• Serious cases may be referred to Criminal court
• Juvenile Court
  
  • Guilt or innocence determined before a judge
  • Juvenile has right to counsel
  • If guilty, disposition determined
    
    • Probation, community service
    • Residential treatment (group home, work camp)
    • Correctional facility

Question 25

Dynamic Cascade Model

Answer 25