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Exam chapters > Bio paper 2 only (book 1 - 10,11,12,13,14,15) > Flashcards

Bio paper 2 only (book 1 - 10,11,12,13,14,15) Flashcards

1
Q

What are communicable diseases?

A

Infectious diseases - caused by a pathogen being transmitted from on host organism to the next

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2
Q

What are non-communicable diseases?

A

Non-infectious diseases - NOT caused by a pathogen e.g. inherited/degenerative

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3
Q

Why might organisms live on us or in us?

A

They depend of us as a source of food/warmth/a habitat

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4
Q

What are obligate parasites?

A

They cannot exist as free-living organisms

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5
Q

What is a parasite?

A

An organism that lives on/inside another organism (the host) - they gain energy from the host

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6
Q

Pathogen?

A

A disease-causing organism - mostly microorganisms

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7
Q

Disease transmission?

A

The transfer of a pathogen from an infected host to an un-infected host

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8
Q

What are the four microorganism groups?

A

Bacteria, Fungi, Viruses, Protoctists

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9
Q

What type of organism are bacteria?

A

Prokaryotes

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10
Q

What is a retrovirus?

A

A virus with single stranded RNA (as its genetic material) instead of DNA - when it enters a cell some use their enzyme (reverse transcriptase) to make DNA

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11
Q

What type and name of pathogen causes Tuberculosis?

A

Bacterium - Mycobacterium tuberculosis/ M. bovis

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12
Q

What method of transmission does tuberculosis undergo?

A

Direct - in droplets through the air

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13
Q

What type and name of pathogen causes Bacterial meningitis?

A

Bacteria - Neisseria meningitidis/ Haemoophilus influenzae

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14
Q

What type of transmission does Bacterial meningitis undergo?

A

Direct - in droplets in the air and exchange of fluids

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15
Q

What type and name of pathogen causes HIV/AIDS?

A

Virus - Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

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16
Q

What type of transmission does HIV/AIDS undergo?

A

Direct - contact between body fluids or between mother and child through breast milk

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17
Q

What type of pathogen and how many cause Influenza?

A

Three types of virus

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18
Q

What type of transmission does Influenza undergo?

A

Direct - in droplets through the air

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19
Q

What type and name of pathogen causes Malaria?

A

Protoctist - Plasmodium falciparum/ P. (ovale/malariae/vivax)

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20
Q

What transmission does malaria undergo?

A

Indirect - by female Anopheles mosquito

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21
Q

What type and name of pathogen causes Cattle ringworm?

A

Fungus - Trichophyton verrucosum

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22
Q

What type of transmission does cattle ringworm undergo?

A

Direct - contact with infected cattle

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23
Q

What type and name of pathogen causes athlete’s foot?

A

Fungus - Epidermophyton floccosum/Trichophyton rubric

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24
Q

What type of transmission does athlete’s foot undergo?

A

Direct - contact with towels used by infected people

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25
Q

What type and name of pathogen causes ring rot in plants?

A

Bacterium - Clavibacter michiganensis

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26
Q

What plants are ring rot caused in?

A

Potato, tomato

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27
Q

What type of transmission does ring rot undergo?

A

Direct - contact with infected tubers/cultivation spread the disease as bacteria remain on machinery

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28
Q

What type and name of pathogen causes mosaic?

A

Virus - Tobacco mosaic virus

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29
Q

What plants are mosaic caused in?

A

Tobacco plants

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30
Q

What type of transmission does mosaic undergo?

A

Direct - contact with leaves of infected

Indirect - via aphids as vectors

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31
Q

What type and name of pathogen causes Black Sigatoka?

A

Fungus - Mycosphaerella fijiensis

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32
Q

What plant does Black Sigatoka occur in?

A

Bananas

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33
Q

What type of transmission does Black Sigatoka undergo?

A

Direct - spores are dispersed through the air

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34
Q

What type and name of pathogen causes Late Blight?

A

Protoctist - Phytophthora infestans

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35
Q

What plant does Late blight occur in?

A

Potato, tomato

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36
Q

What is a spore?

A

A small reproductive structure - they get released into the air or water and grow once they’ve reached a desired food source

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37
Q

What is a vector?

A

An organism that transfers a pathogen from an infected host to an uninfected host - usually goes unharmed by the pathogen

38
Q

What is an endemic disease?

A

Diseases which are always present in a population

39
Q

What is an epidemic of a disease?

A

When there is an increase of the number of cases of a disease (within a population)

40
Q

Physical passive defences?

A

Waxy cuticle, bark, cellulose cell walls, Casparian strip, closing stomata

41
Q

Chemical passive defences?

A

Secretion of compounds toxic to pathogens/of inhibitors of enzymes, receptor molecules

42
Q

Hypersensitivity?

A

The drastic active defence method of plants where all surrounding tissues - near site of infection - die

43
Q

What is callose?

A

A polysaccharide made by plant cells in defence against attack by pests/pathogens (to block sieve pores)

44
Q

First line of defence definition and example?

A

Physical and chemical defences that prevent the entry of pathogens
E.g. skin/mucous membrane

45
Q

Expulsive reflex?

A

Coughing/sneezing - expelling irritants (which might include pathogens)

46
Q

Second line of defence?

A

Phagocytic cells and antimicrobial proteins that act against any type of invading microorganism (which has breached the first line of defence)

47
Q

Non-specific defences?

A

Present from birth - cannot distinguish between different types of pathogens - are efficient but not very effective

48
Q

Describe blood clotting?

A

When there is a break in the skin/mucous, platelets and cells (lining the blood vessels) release compounds which cause a cascade of chemical reactions (involving many plasma proteins)

49
Q

Purpose of blood clotting?

A

Stops blood loss/prevents entry of pathogens/provides protective surface for wound healing to occur underneath

50
Q

Inflammation?

A

A local response to tissue damage/infection - involves release of chemical signalling molecules and results in increased blood flow and movement of phagocytes into tissue

51
Q

Cytokines?

A

Small protein molecules that act as cell signalling compounds - many involved in stimulation of events which occur as a response to infection

52
Q

What is histamine?

A

A cell signalling compound which stimulates responses due to tissue damage
E.g. increase blood flow (vasodilation)/capillaries become leaky/phagocytes leave blood and enter tissue

53
Q

Mast cell?

A

Tissue cell of immune system - releases histamine

54
Q

What does histamine specifically stimulate?

A

Cells to secrete cytokines

55
Q

What are two cytokines that promote inflammation?

A

Interleukin 1 (IL-1) and interleukin 6 (IL-6)

56
Q

What are the 6 stages of wound repairs?

A

Formation of new blood vessels
production of collagen
formation of granulation tissue - fills wound
formation of epithelial cells (by stem cell division)
wound contraction by contractile cells
death of bad cells

57
Q

Phagocytes?

A

Cells that carry out phagocytosis to engulf pathogens/foreign material

58
Q

Neutrophil?

A

Short-lived phagocytic cell (made from bone marrow) - lobed nuclei and granular cytoplasm

59
Q

What do neutrophils do?

A

Circulate in blood and spread to infected tissue quickly - try to destroy the pathogens (once engulfed bacteria, they die)

60
Q

What is a monocyte?

A

A temporary phagocytic cell - bigger than neutrophil and leaves blood to enter tissue in macrophage form

61
Q

What is a macrophage?

A

The form a monocyte takes in order to enter tissue. Large and long-lived phagocytic cell

62
Q

What do macrophages do?

A

They process and present antigens to lymphocytes - some migrate and some stay in that tissue

63
Q

Dendritic cell?

A

A large phagocytic cell with extensions that give a large surface area (to interact with pathogens and lymphocytes)

64
Q

What do dendritic cells do?

A

Ingest some foreign material, then migrate and take foreign material to lymph nodes

65
Q

Third line of defence/specific defence system?

A

A response to invading pathogens - lymphocytes and antibodies act against specific pathogens

66
Q

Immune response?

A

The specific sequence of events (caused by the immune system) which occurs in response to a foreign antigen

67
Q

Lymphocytes?

A

Small WBC’s which are active in tissues (but travel in blood) as opposed to being active in the blood

68
Q

B lymphocyte?

A

Type of WBC, matures in bone marrow - when they respond they become plasma cells

69
Q

T lymphocyte?

A

Type of WBC, matures in thymus gland, when responds to immune response they don’t make or release antibodies

70
Q

An antigen is ?

A

Any substance which stimulates an immune response

71
Q

An antibody is ?

A

Molecules made as part of an immune response by plasma cells (which differentiate from B lymphocytes)

72
Q

(A) Clone/(s)?

A

A group of genetically identical cells

73
Q

Plasma cell?

A

An activated B cell that makes and releases antibodies during an immune response

74
Q

T helper cells?

A

T cell that coordinates an immune response by stimulating responses of B cells and T killer cells - through production of chemical signals ( e.g. interleukins)

75
Q

Clonal selection is ?

A

The process (during immune responses) when specific clones of B/T cells interact with the antigens displayed by antigen presenting cells

76
Q

Antigen presentation is ?

A

The process of antigen presenting cells (in the lymph nodes), engulfing pathogens by endocytosis and then cutting them up - these macrophages process the pathogens antigens and put them in a protein form (in their own membrane)

77
Q

T killer cell?

A

T cell which kills infected host cells

78
Q

T regulator cell?

A

Type of T cell that stops immune responses and prevents T cells attacking the body’s own cell/tissue

79
Q

How do memory cells form?

A

During clonal expansion, B and T cells form memory cells - these cells remain in the body, waiting for the same antigen that they formed from responding to

80
Q

Where are the antigen binding sites?

A

In the shaped gap at the top of both the light chains

81
Q

What shape is an antigen?

A

Y

82
Q

Where is the receptor binding site on an antigen?

A

At the bottom of the heavy chains

83
Q

Where is the hinge region on an antigen?

A

At the point where the two light chains meet in a V

84
Q

Where is the disulphide bond in an antigen?

A

Below the hinge region

85
Q

Which part of an antigen is the constant or variable region?

A

The upper half of the light chain is variable

The lower half of the light chain + the entire heavy chain is the constant region

86
Q

What is an antigen made up of?

A

2 heavy polypeptide chains and two/four light polypeptide chains

87
Q

Natural active immunity?

A

Occurs when you are infected naturally

88
Q

Artificial active immunity?

A

The result of being given a vaccine that contains one or more antigens

89
Q

Natural passive immunity?

A

Occurs when antibodies cross the placenta during pregnancy/ when a child breast feeds

90
Q

Artificial passive immunity?

A

Occurs when antibodies are injected into a person to give instant immunity

Exam chapters (5 decks)

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