1.2 The Evolution of Psychology: History, Approaches, and Questions

Question 1

Structuralism

Answer 1

• Uses the method of introspection to identify the basic elements or “structures” of psychological experience
• Important Contributors:Wilhelm Wundt, Edward B. Titchener

Question 2

Functionalism

Answer 2

• Attempts to understand why animals and humans have developed the particular psychological aspects that they currently possess
• Important Contributors: William James

Question 3

Psychodynamic

Answer 3

• Focuses on the role of our unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories and our early childhood experiences in determining behavior
• Important Contributors: Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erickson

Question 4

Behaviorism

Answer 4

• Based on the premise that it is not possible to objectively study the mind, and therefore that psychologists should limit their attention to the study of behavior itself
• Important Contributors: John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner

Question 5

Cognitive

Answer 5

• The study of mental processes, including perception, thinking, memory, and judgments
• Important Contributors: Hermann Ebbinghaus, Sir Frederic Bartlett, Jean Piaget

Question 6

Social-cultural

Answer 6

• The study of how the social situations and the cultures in which people find themselves influence thinking and behavior
• Important Contributors: Fritz Heider, Leon Festinger, Stanley Schachter

Question 7

Heritability of the characteristic

Answer 7

The proportion of the observed differences on characteristics among people (e.g., in terms of their height, intelligence, or optimism) that is due to genetics

Question 8

Who are the earliest Psychologists we know about?

Answer 8

the Greek philosophers Plato (428–347 BC) and Aristotle (384–322 BC)

Question 9

Nature vs Nuture

Answer 9

Plato argued on the nature side, believing that certain kinds of knowledge are innate or inborn, whereas Aristotle was more on the nurture side, believing that each child is born as an “empty slate” (in Latin atabula rasa) and that knowledge is primarily acquired through learning and experience.

Question 10

French philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650)

Answer 10

he considered the issue of free will, arguing in its favor and believing that the mind controls the body through the pineal gland in the brain (an idea that made some sense at the time but was later proved incorrect)

Question 11

dualism

Answer 11

that the mind is fundamentally different from the mechanical body

Question 12

Introspection

Answer 12

asking research participants to describe exactly what they experience as they work on mental tasks, such as viewing colors, reading a page in a book, or performing a math problem

Question 13

theory of natural selection

Answer 13

• proposed that the physical characteristics of animals and humans evolved because they were useful, or functional
• created by Charles Darwin

Question 14

evolutionary psychology

Answer 14

a branch of psychology that applies the Darwinian theory of natural selection to human and animal behavior

Question 15

Fitness

Answer 15

refers to the extent to which having a given characteristic helps the individual organism survive and reproduce at a higher rate than do other members of the species who do not have the characteristic

Question 16

Psychodynamic psychology

Answer 16

an approach to understanding human behavior that focuses on the role of unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories

Question 17

What do people that follow the psychodynamic approach believe?

Answer 17

that it is possible to help the patient if the unconscious drives can be remembered, particularly through a deep and thorough exploration of the person‘s early sexual experiences and current sexual desires

Question 18

response

Answer 18

the production of specific behaviors

Question 19

stimuli

Answer 19

events that people and other organisms experienced in their environment that could provide responses

Question 20

Who was the first behaviorist?

Answer 20

American psychologist John B. Watson (1878–1958)

Question 21

Who is the most famous behaviorist?

Answer 21

Burrhus Frederick (B. F.) Skinner (1904–1990)

Question 22

What does fMRI stand for?

Answer 22

functional magnetic resonance imaging

Question 23

Who said that the idea that our memory is influenced by what we already know?

Answer 23

Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980)

Question 24

Who are other important cognitive psychologists?

Answer 24

Donald E. Broadbent (1926–1993), Daniel Kahneman (1934–), George Miller (1920–), Eleanor Rosch (1938–), and Amos Tversky (1937–1996)

Question 25

Neuroimaging

Answer 25

the use of various techniques to provide pictures of the structure and function of the living brain

Question 26

conformity

Answer 26

when we frequently change our beliefs and behaviors to be similar to those of the people we care about

Question 27

social norms

Answer 27

the ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving that are shared by group members and perceived by them as appropriate

Question 28

culture

Answer 28

represents the common set of social norms, including religious and family values and other moral beliefs, shared by the people who live in a geographical region

Question 29

individualism

Answer 29

about valuing the self and one’s independence from others

Question 30

Biopsychology and neuroscience

Answer 30

This field examines the physiological bases of behavior in animals and humans by studying the functioning of different brain areas and the effects of hormones and neurotransmitters on behavior

Question 31

Clinical and counseling psychology

Answer 31

These are the largest fields of psychology. The focus is on the assessment, diagnosis, causes, and treatment of mental disorders

Question 32

Cognitive psychology

Answer 32

This field uses sophisticated research methods, including reaction time and brain imaging to study memory, language, and thinking of humans.

Question 33

Developmental

Answer 33

These psychologists conduct research

Question 34

psychology

Answer 34

on the cognitive, emotional, and social changes that occur across the lifespan

Question 35

Forensic psychology

Answer 35

Forensic psychologists apply psychological principles to understand the behavior of judges, attorneys, courtroom juries, and others in the criminal justice system.

Question 36

Health psychology

Answer 36

Health psychologists are concerned with understanding how biology, behavior, and the social situation influence health and illness.

Question 37

Industrial-organizational and environmental psychology

Answer 37

Industrial-organizational psychology applies psychology to the workplace with the goal of improving the performance and well-being of employees.

Question 38

Personality psychology

Answer 38

These psychologists study people and the differences among them. The goal is to develop theories that explain the psychological processes of individuals, and to focus on individual differences

Question 39

School and educational psychology

Answer 39

This field studies how people learn in school, the effectiveness of school programs, and the psychology of teaching.

Question 40

Social and crosscultural psychology

Answer 40

This field examines people’s interactions with other people. Topics of study include conformity, group behavior, leadership, attitudes, and person perception

Question 41

Sports psychology

Answer 41

This field studies the psychological aspects of sports behavior. The goal is to understand the psychological factors that influence performance in sports, including the role of exercise and team interactions

Question 42

method of loci

Answer 42

involves linking each of the pieces of information that you need to remember to places that you are familiar with

Question 43

asmetacognition

Answer 43

Our ability to adequately assess our own knowledge